ISC Class 11 Syllabus 2028 Biology

ISC
INDIAN SCHOOL CERTIFICATE
EXAMINATION

YEAR 2028

BIOLOGY
(863)

Developed by:
Research, Development and Curriculum Division (RDCD)
CISCE

January 2026
____________________________________________________________________________________________

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Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE)

MISSION STATEMENT

The Council for the Indian School Certificate
Examinations is committed to serving the nation's
children, through high quality educational
endeavours, empowering them to contribute towards
a humane, just and pluralistic society, promoting
introspective living, by creating exciting learning
opportunities, with a commitment to excellence.

ETHOS OF CISCE

Trust and fair play.
Minimum monitoring.
Allowing schools to evolve their own niche.
Catering to the needs of the children.
Giving freedom to experiment with new ideas
and practices.
Diversity and plurality - the basic strength for
evolution of ideas.
Schools to motivate pupils towards the
cultivation of:
Excellence - The Indian and Global
experience.
Values - Spiritual and cultural - to be the bedrock
of the educational experience.
Schools to have an 'Indian Ethos', strong roots in
the national psyche and be sensitive to national
aspirations.

BIOLOGY (863)

Aims
1. To enable candidates to acquire the knowledge and to develop an understanding of biological terms, concepts,
facts, principles, formulae, etc.
2. To develop the ability to apply the knowledge of biology in unfamiliar situations.
3. To develop experimental skills required in biology practical work.
4. To create awareness about the problems of the environment and the manner in which these problems can be
overcome.
5. To develop the ability to appreciate biological phenomena in nature and the contribution of biology to human
welfare.
6. To develop interest in plants and animals and in their respective environments.
7. To develop scientific attitude towards biological phenomena.
8. To create awareness of the fundamentals of human biology, food, health, nutrition and population control.

CLASS XI
There will be two papers in the subject:
Paper I: Theory: 3 hours ...70 marks
Paper II: Practical: 3 hours ... 15 marks
Project Work … 10 marks
Practical File … 5 marks

PAPER 1 (THEORY) : 70 Marks

S.NO. UNIT TOTAL
WEIGHTAGE
1. Diversity of Living Organisms 09 Marks
2. Structural Organisation in Animals and Plants 11 Marks
3. Cell: Structure and Function 15 Marks
4. Plant Physiology 17 Marks
5. Human Physiology 18 Marks
TOTAL 70 Marks

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PAPER I (THEORY) : 70 Marks
Note: All structures (internal and external) are required to be taught along with diagrams.

1. Diversity of Living Organisms
(i) The Living World
Need for classification; taxonomy and systematics; concept of species and taxonomical hierarchy;
binomial nomenclature.
Need for classification, Definition and explanation of the terms taxonomy (numerical taxonomy,
cytotaxonomy and chemotaxonomy) and systematics. Concept of species. Major taxonomical
hierarchies (phylum, class, order, family, genus, species): definition and examples with reference to
classification of man, house fly, mango and wheat. Rules of binomial nomenclature and advantages
of using scientific names.
Three systems of classification – artificial, natural and phylogenetic.
(ii) Biological Classification
Three domains of life; Five kingdom classification; s alient features and classification of Monera,
Protista, Fungi, P l a n t a e and Animalia. Lichens, Viruses, Viroids and Prions.
(a) Three domains of life – distinguishing features of (archaea, bacteria, eukarya). Five-kingdom
system of classification and characteristics of different kingdoms with examples.
(b) Kingdom Monera: Bacteria - General structure of a typical bacterial cell; classification of
bacteria according to shape, nutrition and mode of respiration; differences between gram +ve
and gram –ve bacteria; types of reproduction – definition of fission, conjugation, transduction
and transformation (details not required).
A brief idea of the role of different types of archaebacteria (methanogens, halophiles and
thermoacidophiles in their extreme environments).
Mycoplasma – three distinctive features.
Economic importance with reference to role of bacteria in sewage treatment, antibiotics, energy
production and house hold products (curd and cheese only).
(c) Kingdom Protista – only two general characteristics and two examples of subgroups:
(i) Chrysophytes (ii) Dinoflagellates (iii) Euglenoids (iv) Slime moulds (v) Protozoans (to be
studied under rhizopods, flagellates, ciliates and sporozoans with two characteristics including
modes of locomotion and two examples of each).
(d) Kingdom Fungi: general characteristics and mode of reproduction of each (including types of
spores and sexual reproduction – definition of isogamy, anisogamy, oogamy, plasmogamy,
karyogamy and dikaryophase). Zygomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, Deuteromycetes -
characteristics with examples. Role of fungi in the field of medicine, bakery and environmental
decomposition. Definition of lichens and mycorrhiza (ecto and endo).
Life cycles not required.
(e) Virus (characteristic features – link between living and non-living, structure of TMV and
bacteriophage and contribution of the following scientists: D.J. Ivanowsky, M.W. Beijerinck,
W.M. Stanley). Definitions of Viroid and Prions (examples of the diseases caused by prions –
BSE and CJD).
(iii) Plant Kingdom
(a) Algae - characteristics (morphology, common name, major pigments, stored food, composition of
cell wall, flagellar number and position of insertion, habitat, mode of sexual reproduction) and
examples of Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae, Rhodophyceae; Economic importance of algae – any
five.
(b) Bryophyta – general characteristics, distinctive features of liverworts and mosses; graphic outline
of life cycle of Funaria with reference to alternation of generations. Economic importance of
bryophytes.

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(c) Pteridophyta: characteristics; classification into classes: psilopsida (Psilotum), lycopsida
(Selaginella, Lycopodium), sphenopsida (Equisetum) and pteropsida (Dryopteris, Pteris and
Adiantum). Graphic outline of life cycle of a typical pteridophyte (fern). Definition of homospory
and heterospory with relevant examples. Economic importance.
(d) Gymnosperms: general characteristics and graphic outline of life cycle of a typical gymnosperm
(Pinus). Economic importance.
(iv) Animal Kingdom
Animal Kingdom: levels of organisation – (cellular level, tissue level, organ level, organ system level);
body plan (cell aggregate plan, blind-sac plan and tube-within-tube plan), symmetry (spherical, radial
and bilateral symmetry), (diploblastic and triploblastic organisation in animals, coelom development-
(acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, coelomate and haemocoelomate), segmentation.
Non-chordata - five distinguishing characters with two examples of Porifera, Cnidaria, Ctenophora,
Platyhelminthes, Nematoda (Aschelminthes), Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata,
Hemichordata.
Chordata – sub-classification of Chordata with reference to notochord - sub phyla Urochordata,
Cephalochordata. Vertebrata (classes – cyclostomata, chondrichthyes, osteichthyes, amphibia,
reptilia, aves and mammalia) – three distinguishing characters with two examples of each).

2. Structural Organisation in Animals and Plants
(i) Morphology of Flowering Plants
(a) Morphology and modifications of root, stem, leaf.
Types of roots (tap, fibrous, adventitious), regions, modifications of roots for storage (Tuberous
– e.g. Mirabilis and sweet potato; fusiform – e.g. radish; conical – e.g., carrot; napiform – e.g.
turnip), respiration (pneumatophores) and support (stilt and prop).
Stems – features (nodes internodes, buds), modifications – underground (tuber, rhizome, corm)
aerial (tendril, thorn, Phylloclade, cladode) and sub-aerial (runner, sucker, stolon, offset).
Leaves - parts of a simple leaf, venation, types of leaves (simple and compound – pinnate and
palmate), phyllotaxy – alternate, opposite, whorled (with an example of each). Modifications for
mechanical support (tendril), protection (spine), storage (bulb), reproduction (Bryophyllum);
insectivorous plants (pitcher plant, Venus-fly-trap).
(b) Morphology of flower. Structure of a typical flower, types of inflorescence (racemose and
cymose).
Structure of a typical flower, bracteates/ebracteate, [symmetry (actinomorphic, zygomorphic),
trimerous/tetramerous/pentamerous, complete/ incomplete, non-essential whorls (calyx:
gamosepalous, polysepalous, corolla: gamopetalous, polysepalous, perianth, aestivation:
valvate, twisted, imbricate, vexillary), essential whorls (androecium: cohesion - syngenesious,
synandrous, monadelphous, diadelphous, polyadelphous; adhesion – epipetalous, epiphyllous;
number of lobes – monothecous, dithecous; Gynoecium: position of ovary – epigynous,
hypogynous, perigynous, cohesion – apocarpous, syncarpous, number of locules – unilocular,
bilocular, multilocular, placentation – axile, marginal, parietal, free central, basal; types of
inflorescence (racemose and cymose – definition, examples,and differences; subtypes not
required).
(ii) Anatomy of Flowering Plants
Plant Tissues: types of plant tissues: Meristematic tissues: classification of meristematic tissue.
Permanent Tissues: structure and function of simple tissues (parenchyma, collenchyma and
sclerenchyma) and complex tissues (xylem and phloem), tissue system. Internal structure of root,
stem, and leaf.
Characteristics of meristematic tissue; classification of meristems based on origin and location;
structure, function and location of permanent tissues; simple and complex tissues; epidermal, ground
and vascular tissue systems.
Cellular diagrams of T.S. of roots and stem and V.S. of monocot and dicot leaves are required.

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(iii) Structural Organisation in Animals: Frog
Morphology, anatomy and functions of different systems (digestive, circulatory, respiratory,
excretory, nervous and reproductive) of frog a brief account only.

3. Cell: Structure and Function
(i) Cell - the Unit of Life
Cell theory and cell as the basic unit of life: Structure of eukaryotic cells; Plant cell and animal cell;
cell envelope; cell membrane, cell wall; cell organelles – ultrastructure and function;
endomembrane system, mitochondria, ribosomes, plastids, microbodies; cytoskeleton, cilia, flagella,
centrioles; nucleus.
Historical aspects, cell theory, size and shape of cells.
General structure of eukaryotic cell, ultra-structure and function of cell wall (including definition of
plasmodesmata), cell membrane (description of fluid mosaic model; functions of the plasma
membrane: active and passive transport, brief explanation of facilitated diffusion (uniport, symport
and antiport) with one example]. Mitochondria, nucleus (nuclear membrane, chromatin, nucleolus,
structure and types of chromosomes on the basis of the position of centromere, satellite), types of
plastids, endomembrane system (endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes and vacuoles),
ribosomes, microbodies, cytoskeleton (microfilaments, microtubules and intermediate filaments),
cilia, flagella and centrioles; differences between prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cell, plant cell and
animal cell.
(ii) Biomolecules
Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, enzymes, secondary metabolites.
Carbohydrates: general classification and functions of: monosaccharides (glucose, ribose and
deoxyribose), disaccharides (maltose, lactose and sucrose), polysaccharides (glycogen, starch,
cellulose, inulin, and chitin).
Proteins: amino acids – (structure: glycine, alanine, serine); amino acids as zwitter-ion; examples of
acidic, basic, neutral, sulphur containing amino acids; essential and non-essential amino acids; levels
of protein structure (primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary); functions of proteins.
Lipids: classification, structure and functions of fats and oils.
Enzymes: general properties, nomenclature and classification of enzymes according to type of
reactions, co-factors (prosthetic groups, coenzymes and metal ions). Factors affecting enzyme activity
- temperature, pH, substrate concentration. Competitive inhibitors.
Definition and examples of secondary metabolites.
(iii) Cell Cycle and Cell Division
Cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis and their significance.
Definition of C-value, different stages of cell cycle (G o , G 1 , S and G 2 and M).
Different stages of mitosis and meiosis (prophase – I) with diagrams. Significance of mitosis and
meiosis. Differences between mitosis and meiosis.

4. Plant Physiology
(i) Photosynthesis in higher plants
Photosynthesis as a mean of autotrophic nutrition; site of photosynthesis, pigments involved in
photosynthesis (elementary idea); photochemical and biosynthetic phases of photosynthesis; cyclic
and non-cyclic photophosphorylation; chemiosmotic hypothesis; photorespiration; C 3 and C 4
pathways; factors affecting photosynthesis.
Differences between absorption and action spectra. Brief idea of photosynthetic pigments (difference
between chlorophyll ‘a’&‘b’, carotenoids and xanthophyll), photochemical phase - pigment systems,
cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation, chemiosmotic hypothesis; biosynthetic phase - C 3 cycle
– graphic representation in correct sequence (carboxylation, glycolytic reversal and regeneration of
pentose); Kranz anatomy, graphic representation of C 4 cycle (Hatch and Slack pathway);
Differences between C 3 and C 4 plants, C 3 and C 4 cycles, Photosystems I and II, Photorespiration
pathway in brief; significance of photorespiration; explanation of how RuBP carboxylase acts as

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RuBP oxygenase. Blackman’s Law of limiting factors, factors affecting photosynthesis (light, CO 2 ,
temperature, and water).
(ii) Respiration in Plants
Exchange of gases; cellular respiration - glycolysis, fermentation (anaerobic), TCA cycle a n d
electron transport system (aerobic); energy relations - number of ATP molecules generated;
amphibolic pathways; respiratory quotient.
Types of respiration; mechanism of respiration: glycolysis, Krebs’ cycle, ETS (only flowchart).
Oxidative phosphorylation – definition; Brief idea of fermentation and Amphibolic pathway.
Definition of respiratory quotient and RQ values of carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
(iii) Plant Growth and Development
Seed germination; phases of plant growth; p l a n t g r o w t h r a t e ; differentiation,
dedifferentiation and redifferentiation; sequence of developmental processes in a plant cell; growth
regulators - auxin, gibberellin, cytokinin, ethylene, ABA.
Definition of hypogeal, epigeal and viviparous germination with two examples of each. A brief idea
about differentiation, dedifferentiation and redifferentiation. Phases of growth in meristems, growth
rate – definition; measurement of growth by direct method and use of auxanometer, factors affecting
growth.
Discovery and physiological role of growth regulators in plants (such as auxins, gibberellins,
cytokinins, ethylene and abscisic acid – four effects of each); application of growth regulators.

5. Human Physiology
(i) Breathing and exchange of gases.
Respiratory organs in animals (recall only); Respiratory system in humans; mechanism of breathing
- exchange of gases, transport of gases and regulation of breathing, respiratory volumes; disorders
related to respiration.
Organs involved in respiration; mechanism of pulmonary gas exchange; breathing process should be
explained showing the action of diaphragm and intercostal muscles, regulation of breathing ;
transport of oxygen in the blood, oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve; transport of CO 2 ; chloride shift,
pulmonary air volumes and lung capacities; disorders of respiratory system such as - asthma,
emphysema, occupational respiratory disorders.
(ii) Body fluids and circulation.
Composition of blood, blood groups, coagulation of blood; composition of lymph and its functions;
human circulatory system - structure of human heart and blood vessels; cardiac cycle, cardiac
output, ECG; double circulation; regulation of cardiac activity; disorders of circulatory system.
Composition of blood plasma, functions of plasma proteins, blood corpuscles. Importance of ABO
groups in blood transfusion, Rh factor and its importance in transfusion and pregnancy; clotting of
blood to be taught briefly; lymphatic system – a brief idea of lymph (composition and function),
Difference between closed and open vascular system; external and internal structure of heart;
working of the heart and blood flow through the heart during different phases should be described
under the following headings - auricular systole, auricular diastole, ventricular systole, ventricular
diastole and joint diastole; definition of stroke volume and cardiac output, regulation of heart beat,
ECG; arterial blood pressure (systolic and diastolic), double circulation. The internal structure of
artery, vein and capillary. Importance of ABO groups in blood transfusion, Rh factor and its
importance in transfusion and pregnancy; clotting of blood to be taught briefly; lymphatic system – a
brief idea of lymph (composition and function), lymphatic capillaries and lymph nodes; disorders of
the circulatory system such as hypertension, coronary artery disease, angina pectoris and heart
failure.
(iii) Excretory products and their elimination.
Modes of excretion - ammonotelism, ureotelism, uricotelism; human excretory system - structure and
function; urine formation, osmoregulation; regulation of kidney function, renin - angiotensin, atrial
natriuretic factor, ADH; role of erythropoietin; role of other organs in excretion; disorders of the

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excretory system - uraemia, renal failure, renal calculi, nephritis; dialysis and artificial kidney, kidney
transplant.
Define, differentiate and explain the terms ammonotelism, ureotelism and uricotelism; external and
internal structure of the kidney (L.S.); structure of nephron; physiology of urine formation - ultra
filtration, selective reabsorption and active (tubular) secretion. Counter current system, regulation of
urine formation, definition and regulation of micturition, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, role
of atrial natriuretic factor, ADH and erythropoietin.
Role of skin, liver and lungs in excretion. Homeostasis – definition. Disorders of the excretory system
- uraemia, renal failure, renal calculi, nephritis.
Haemodialysis; Kidney transplant.
(iv) Locomotion and Movement
Types of movement - ciliary, flagellar, muscular; skeletal muscles - contractile proteins and muscle
contraction; skeletal system and its functions; joints; disorders of muscular and skeletal system.
Locomotion: Basic aspects of human skeleton (number and names of the bones of axial and
appendicular skeleton).
Functions of human skeleton; different types of joints - their location and function; general properties
of muscles; structure of skeletal muscle - sliding filament theory of muscle contraction; chemical
events during muscle contraction; definition of summation, tetanus, rigor mortis, differences between
red and white muscles.
Disorders of muscular and skeletal system: (i) Myasthenia gravis, (ii) Tetany, (iii )Muscular
dystrophy, (iv) Arthritis, (v) Osteoporosis, (vi) gout.
(v) Neural Control and Coordination
Neuron and nerves; nervous system in humans - central nervous system; peripheral nervous system
and visceral nervous system; generation and conduction of nerve impulse.
Types of neurons – (unipolar, bipolar. Pseudounipolar and multipolar), Structure and functions of
various parts of the brain and spinal cord; conduction of nerve impulses through nerve fibre (non-
myelinated and myelinated) and through synapse.
(vi) Chemical Co-ordination and Integration
Human endocrine system - hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thymus, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, GI
tract, pancreas, gonads; mechanism of hormone action (elementary idea); role of hormones as
messengers and regulators, hypo - and hyperactivity and related disorders; dwarfism, acromegaly,
cretinism, goiter, exophthalmic goiter, diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus, Grave’s disease,
Addison's disease.
Brief idea of location of endocrine glands; role of hypothalamus; hormones secreted by different lobes
of pituitary and their functions; feedback control of tropic hormones to be discussed giving examples;
hormones of pineal, thymus, thyroid, parathyroid, pancreas, adrenal glands, GI tract (gastrin,
secretin, GIP, CCK-PZ) and gonads; mechanism of hormone action (through cAMP and steroid
hormones only); effects of hypo secretion and hyper secretion of various hormones of the above
mentioned glands.
Note: Diseases related to all the human physiological systems to be taught in brief.
Topics having numerical problems to be taught with illustrative examples.

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PAPER II (PRACTICAL WORK) : 15 Marks
1. Scientific Techniques
To study parts of a dissecting microscope and compound microscope.
The students should know all parts of dissecting and compound microscope and be able to handle the
microscope independently.

2. Physiology
(i) Food tests: test for starch, glucose, sucrose, proteins and fats.
Food tests: tests should be reported in tabular form. Both positive and negative tests should be
reported.
(ii) To study the effect of thawing, heat and alcohol on permeability of beet root cells.
To study the effect of heat on permeability of cell membrane of beet root cells: students should record
the observations at very low temperature, room temperature and higher temperature to see the degree
of leaching and conclude accordingly. Experiment on effect of alcohol on the permeability with regard
to leaching.
(iii) Separation of plant pigments from leaves by chromatography.
(iv) Effect of different carbon dioxide concentrations on the rate of photosynthesis.
(v) Demonstration of plasmolysis (using Rhoeo leaf / onion bulb).
(vi) Demonstration of osmosis in living plant cells (potato osmoscope).

3. Morphology
(i) Morphology and modification of roots, stems and leaves.
Teachers can show examples of roots, stems and leaves modified for mechanical support, storage,
reproduction or perennation – students should learn to identify and draw the specimens.
Leaves: phyllotaxy – alternate, opposite whorled (with an example of each), shape, venation, simple
and compound.
(ii) Preparation of temporary slides of Mucor / Rhizopus.
The teacher should guide the students on the technique of culture, staining and mounting the material
and then observing under the microscope. The students should also be able to make labelled diagrams
and record observations.

4. Cytology
Preparation of temporary slides of -
(i) Onion peel (to study the plant cell)
(ii) Stages of mitosis in onion root tips.
Correct method of selecting the root tip, fixing, staining and mounting should be taught. Different
stages should be observed first in low power and after locating the area, the students should see it
under high power. Various stages should be drawn and labelled.
(iii) T.S of monocot and dicot stem.
(iv) T.S. of monocot and dicot root.
After staining and mounting the tissue, students should be able to draw the diagram and label all the
parts as seen under the low power of microscope.

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5. Spotting: (Three minutes to be given for each spot which includes identification, drawing a labelled
diagram and writing at least two characteristics)
(a) Identification of stained preparations of the following:
(i) Stages of meiosis.
(ii) Identification of mammalian blood cells.
(iii) Bacteria
(iv) Spirogyra
(v) Amoeba
(vi) Yeast
(b) Identification of the following specimens -
(i) Liverworts
(ii) Moss
(iii) Fern
(iv) Pinus
(v) Mushroom
(vi) One monocot plant – bamboo
(vii) One dicot plant – Petunia
(viii) Sponge
(ix) Hydra
(x) Tape worm
(xi) Leech
(xii) Silk Worm
(xiii) Rohu fish
Students should be taught how to identify, draw, label and give at least two significantly visible
characteristics, as observed, of each spot, in a given time of three minutes.
(c) Comment on experimental set up studied in physiology.
(i) Osmosis
(ii) Transpiration
(iii) Photosynthesis
(iv) Transpiration pull.
Students should identify (aim of the experiment), draw a labelled diagram of the physiological set-up
and write observation and inference of the experiment within the allotted time i.e., 3 minutes.

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PROJECT WORK AND PRACTICAL FILE – 15 Marks

Project Work – 10 Marks
Candidate is to creatively execute one project/assignment on any aspect of Biology. Preference is to be given
to handwritten investigatory projects. Candidates are required to submit a hard copy of their computer-
generated projects duly signed by the Internal Examiner (and the Head of the Institution) for physical
verification and assessment. Following is only a suggestive list of projects. Teachers may assign or students
may choose any one project of their choice.
(i) Project related to experiment on any aspect of plant life/animal life.
(ii) Project related to any aspect of environment.
(iii) Diabetes.
(iv) Endocrine disorders.
(v) Yeast fermentation and production of alcohol or any other commercial industry dependant on plants and/or
animals or their products.
In addition, students may be taught how to culture:
− Earthworms.
− Protozoans.
− Moulds.
− Setting up of an aquarium.
Suggested Evaluation Criteria for Project Work:
Format of the Project:
– Content
– Introduction
– Presentation (graphs, tables, charts, newspaper cuttings, diagrams, photographs, statistical analysis if
relevant)
– Conclusion/ Summary
– Bibliography
Practical File – 5 Marks
The practical file should cover all the practical exercises outlined in the syllabus. Each practical done
during the year, needs to be recorded by the student in the Practical file and the same must be checked,
signed and dated by the teacher.
Teachers are required to assess students on the basis of the Biology Practical file maintained by them during
the academic year.

SCIENTISTS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS
1. Beijerinck – Contagium vivum fluidum
2. Carl Woese – Three domains of life
3. Engelmann – Action spectrum of photosynthesis
4. Ernst Mayr – Biological species concept
5. F.F. Blackman – Law of limiting factor
6. F W Went – Isolated Auxins
7. Farmer and Moore – Discovered meiosis
8. G.N. Ramachandran – Analysis of Protein structure
9. George Palade – Discovered ribosomes
10. Huxley and Niedergerke – Sliding filament theory
11. Ivanowsky – Discovered Tobacco Mosaic Virus
12. Karl Landsteiner – ABO Blood group system
13. Katherine Esau – Anatomy of plants

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14. Peter Mitchell – Chemiosmotic coupling hypothesis
15. Priestley – Plants restore oxygen in the air
16. Robert Brown – Discovered nucleus
17. Singer and Nicolson – Proposed fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane
18. Sutherland – cyclic AMP as second messenger
19. T. O. Diener – Discovered viroids
20. Thomas Addison – Father of endocrinology
21. Van Neil – Oxygen released during photosynthesis comes from water
22. W. M. Stanley – Crystallised TMV
23. Waldeyer – Coined the term chromosome
24. Whittaker – Five kingdoms of life
25. William Harvey – Discovered circulatory system

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS TO BE STUDIED
1. 2,4-D – 2, 4-Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid
2. ABA – Abscisic Acid
3. ANF – Atrial Natriuretic Factor
4. CCK –Cholecystokinin
5. ECG – Electrocardiogram
6. ERV – Expiratory Reserve Volume
7. ETS – Electron Transport System
8. FAD – Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide
9. FRC – Functional Residual Capacity
10. GA – Gibberellic acid
11. GFR – Glomerular Filtration Rate
12. GIP – Gastric Inhibitory Peptide
13. IBA – Indole Butyric Acid
14. ICBN - International Code for Botanical Nomenclature
15. IRV – Inspiratory Reserve Volume
16. LHC – Light Harvesting Complex
17. NAA – Naphthalene Acetic Acid
18. NADPH – Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (reduced)
19. OAA – Oxaloacetic Acid
20. PGA – Phosphoglyceric Acid
21. PGRs – Plant Growth Regulators
22. PPLO – Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organism
23. PZ – Pancreozymin
24. RQ – Respiratory Quotient
25. RUBISCO – Ribulose Bisphosphate Carboxylase Oxygenase
26. TMV – Tobacco Mosaic Virus

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