ISC Class 12 Syllabus 2028 Environmental Science

ISC
INDIAN SCHOOL CERTIFICATE
EXAMINATION

YEAR 2028

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
(877)

Developed by:
Research, Development and Curriculum Division (RDCD)
CISCE

January 2026
____________________________________________________________________________________________

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aspirations.

CLASS XII
There will be two papers in the subject:
Paper I: Theory - 3 hours... 70 marks
Paper II: Project Work - … 30 marks

PAPER I – THEORY
S. UNIT WEIGHTAGE
NO.

1 Human Beings and Nature 08

2 Population and Conservation Ecology 10

3 Monitoring Pollution 10

4 Urbanisation in Developing Countries 08

5 Transition of Indian Agriculture 07

6 Management of Agricultural Produce 07

7 Environmental and Natural Resource Economics 10

8 International Relations and the Environment 10

TOTAL 70 MARKS

1. Human Beings and Nature
A brief understanding of the concept of multidisciplinary nature of Environmental science, its key
components, challenges pertaining to environmental issues and its specific role in creating an environmentally
responsible society.
(i) Modern schools of ecological thought.
(ii) Deep ecology vs. shallow ecology (Arne Naess).
(iii) Stewardship of land (e.g. Wendell Berry).
(iv) Social ecology.
(v) Ecofeminism.
(vi) Green Politics (e.g. Germany and England).
(vii) Sustainable Development.
Modern schools of ecological thought; definition and basic understanding of principles of Deep Ecology as
opposed to Shallow Ecology; Stewardship of Land, four Laws of Ecology, Social Ecology, Eco feminism,
Green political movements of Germany and England. Sustainable Development (basic concepts).
(A brief look at the above in terms of definition, origin, basic principles and environmental orientations.)
Indian Environmentalist: Vandana Shiva - a short biographical sketch particularly with reference to her work
on the environment.

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International Environmentalists: Rachel Carson, Barry Commmoner, Wendell Berry: a short biographical
sketch particularly with reference to their work on the environment.
International Environmental organisations: Earth First – a brief understanding of the organization’s ethos
and work.
• World Wide Fund for Nature – organisation, mission, strategy for conservation.
• Greenpeace – organisation, mission statement, core values, objectives and strategy.
Environmental movements in India: Silent Valley Movement-objectives, strategies and outcomes.

2. Population and Conservation Ecology
(i) Population dynamics: factors causing population change (birth, death, immigration and emigration);
relation between the factors; age structure and its significance; population pyramids; survivorship curves;
three general shapes of survivorship curves, r and K strategies.
Factors causing population change (birth, death, immigration and emigration); relation between the
factors; Age structure and its significance; Population Pyramids – interpretation and implications. Rate
of change of population – the three general shapes of Survivorship Curves, r and K strategies and
differences between the two.
(ii) Human populations (Malthusian model and demographic transition).
Definition of Carrying Capacity; Malthusian view: concept of ‘over-population’ and shortage of
resources; Questioning Malthus. Population Growth vs. Disparate Consumption of resources within and
amongst nations. Definition and understanding of Demographic Transition; Factors influencing
demographic transition.
(iii) Population Regulation: growth without regulation (exponential); simple population regulation (logistic
growth curve); factors regulating population.
Basic understanding of the Exponential growth curve (J – shaped) and Logistic growth curve (S - shaped);
Factors regulating population size (space, food and water, territories, predators, weather and climate,
parasite and diseases, disasters and self-regulation).
(iv) Human population control: family planning; education; economic growth; status of women.
Strategies for human population control with emphasis on women’s empowerment. (Details of methods
of family planning not required.)
(v) Threats to the ecosystem: habitat destruction; genetic erosion; loss of diversity; expanding agriculture;
impound water; waste from human societies; increasing human consumption.
Only a brief understanding of the causes and consequences of threats to provisioning and regulatory
functions of the ecosystem with suitable examples.
(vi) Conservation: importance; the critical state of Indian forests; conflicts surrounding forested areas -
populations and tribals and their rights - tourism - poaching - roads - development projects - dams;
scientific forestry and its limitations; social forestry; the role of the forest department; NGOs; Joint Forest
Management; wildlife - sanctuaries, conservation and management in India; Project Tiger as a case study
in conservation.
Definition of Conservation, in situ and ex situ conservation. Importance of Conservation.
In-situ conservation: Wildlife sanctuaries, National parks, Biosphere reserves (definition, objectives,
features, advantages and disadvantages).
Ex-situ conservation: zoos, aquaria, plant collection (objectives, features, advantages and
disadvantages).
Conflicts in managing and conserving Forests: India’s forest cover, issues concerning people living in
and around forests with reference to tribal rights (The Forest Right Act, 2006); threats to forests:

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poaching, developmental projects like roads and dams, over exploitation of forest resources (direct and
indirect).
The role of the forest department and NGOs in managing forests.
Some management measures: scientific forestry, social forestry (various types of social forestry), Joint
Forest Management (JFM), ecotourism.
Definition, scope, advantages and disadvantages of each of the above.
Project Tiger as a case study in conservation: Origin, aims, and objectives, successes, failures.

3. Monitoring Pollution
(i) Pollution monitoring.
Primary and secondary pollutants. Importance of monitoring air pollution including Ambient Air Quality
Monitoring (gaseous and particulate). Concept of carbon credits and Carbon footprint, carbon trading
in regulating emissions. Causes for excessive vehicular pollution and various steps taken to regulate
pollution-emission standards for new vehicles, implementation of CNG programme, inspection &
maintenance programme for in-use vehicles, phasing out of old commercial vehicles and promotion of
public transport.
(ii) International and national air quality standards.
National Air Monitoring Programme (NAMP) (earlier known as NAAQM)- objectives of the NAMP; the
main functions of the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the State Pollution Control Board,
objectives of air quality standards.
NEERI - a brief history, its research areas and its role in monitoring pollution.
Definition of air quality standards and importance; National air quality standards for gases/particulate
matter covered under WHO guidelines.
(iii) Monitoring the atmosphere: techniques.
Monitoring at emission source and of ambient air quality, criteria for air quality monitoring stations,
types of air quality monitoring stations as per CPCB guidelines, requisite for number and distribution of
air quality monitoring stations, frequency of air quality data collection, characteristics of ambient air
sampling, basic consideration for sampling (to be dealt with in brief). Classification of techniques-
manual and instrumental. Manual-Passive samplers, High Volume Samplers and Bubbler Systems.
Instrumental-photometric techniques-NDIR, Chemiluminescence - principle and use.
(iv) Water testing: indicators of water quality.
Indicators (electrical conductivity, turbidity, pH, dissolved oxygen, faecal waste, temperature, hardness,
nitrates and sulphates, B.O.D. and C.O.D)-significance of each and their interpretations (theoretical
concept only).
(v) Soil testing: indicators of soil type and quality and laboratory work.
Soil indicators- the characteristics of a good soil indicator, the three basic types of soil indicators-
biological, physical and chemical, two examples of each. The information provided by each of these types
of indicators. Definitions, effects and experiments to find out soil respiration, soil pH, soil aggregate,
infiltration rate and simple methods of controlling each of these.
(Lab work for better understanding and not for testing)

4. Urbanisation in Developing Countries
(i) Urban-rural divide: urbanisation - push and pull factors; consequences on rural and urban sectors; future
trends and projections.

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Causes of migration - push and pull factors, consequences on rural and urban areas and ways to reduce
migration. Future trends and projections.
VB-G RAM G for Viksit Bharat-Guarantee for Rozgar and Ajeevika Mission (Gramin) (earlier known as
MGNREGA) - An initiative for generating livelihood and economic development to counter rural
migration (brief outline and its benefits).
(ii) A critical appraisal of conventional paradigm of development from the viewpoints of sustainability,
environmental impact and equity.
Definition of Development.
An understanding that development has become synonymous with growth. This approach has the
following impacts on the environment: (a) Ignoring negative environmental impacts; (b) Changing
patterns of resource use due to market pressures; (c) Overuse and exploitation of resources; (d) Diversion
of scarce resources to luxury goods; (e) Disparate access to resources; (f) Increasing wastes and
pollution.
(The above to be explained with suitable examples.)
(iii) A case study of Gandhian approach in terms of its aims and processes.
Local self-governance – basic principles behind village policy, Panchayati Raj; local self-sufficiency,
local markets and environmental sustainability. Village as the basis of development; promotion of cottage
industries and intermediate technologies; focus on employment.
(The above to be contrasted with today’s paradigm of growth.)
(iv) Urban environmental planning and management: problems of sanitation; water management; transport;
energy; air quality; housing; constraints (economic, political) in tackling the problems; inapplicability of
solutions that have worked in the First World and the need for indigenous approach to urban environment.
A basic understanding of the following urban environmental problems: problems of sanitation, water
management, transport, energy; air quality and housing.
Awareness of some indigenous solutions: Rainwater harvesting, garbage segregation, composting,
energy from solid and liquid wastes, sewage management- dry toilets, Decentralized Wastewater
Treatment Systems (DEWATS).
Features of new urbanism, goals of smart growth. The following examples of urban planning and
management from the third world to be studied:
• Auroville- A Green Experiment in Global Living.
• Cuba (Urban agriculture using organic methods).
• Curitiba – Brazil (Traffic planning and urban renewal using innovative measures.)
• Mawlynnong- “The cleanest Village in Asia 2024--A blueprint for Sustainable living and Community
engagement.

5. Transition of Indian agriculture
(i) Traditional Agriculture in India: irrigation systems; crop varieties; techniques for maintaining soil
fertility; impact of colonialism; Indian agriculture at independence - food scarcity - food import - need for
increasing production - the need for land reform; green revolution - HYVs – fertiliser - pesticides - large
irrigation projects (dams); critical appraisal of the green revolution from the viewpoints of agro-bio
diversity; soil health; ecological impact of pesticides; energy (petroleum and petrochemicals); ability to
reach the poorer sections of the rural communities; sustainability - need for sustainable agriculture -
characteristics for sustainable agriculture; techniques of water, soil and pest management.
Definition of the following terms: traditional agriculture, natural farming, organic agriculture, modern
agriculture (use of hybrid seeds, high yielding varieties, chemical fertiliser and pesticides), gene
revolution (genetically modified seeds) and sustainable agriculture.

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Irrigation systems:
Macro vs micro irrigation systems - canal irrigation/dam as compared to sprinkler/ drip/ trickle drip/dug
wells. Basic features, advantages and disadvantages of each kind. Traditional rainwater harvesting-
tankas, khadins, ahar, pynes, zings, johads and eris (suitability of each type in the particular region).
Features of pre-colonial agriculture in India: growing for sustenance rather than market; multi-cropping,
management of soil health, diversity in seed.
Colonial influence: punitive taxation, commercial crops for export and British industry, devaluation of
sustainable traditional practices. Bengal famine. Comparative study of pre-colonial, colonial and post-
colonial agriculture and their impact.
Green Revolution: Origin (food scarcity - food import - need for increasing production).
Basic principles of Green Revolution- Development of High Yielding Varieties (HYV); introduction of
fertiliser and pesticides; mono cropping.
Environmental, social and economic impacts -advantages and disadvantages (from the viewpoints of
agro-bio diversity; soil health; ecological impact of pesticides; energy use; input costs; benefits to small
and medium farmers, community level and household level food security).
Land reform – need, advantages, failures and successes.
Elements of sustainable agriculture: Mixed farming, mixed cropping, inter-cropping, crop rotation, use
of sustainable practices of water soil and pest management for improving soil fertility (organic bio-
fertiliser, green manure, with two examples) and pest control (bio pesticides). Integrated Pest
Management (IPM); eating local foods.

6. Management of Agricultural Produce
(i) Post harvest practices, Food processing and food preservation techniques. Quality marks and Food
Security.
Management of agricultural produce: Storage and transport of agricultural produce (basic concept).
Food preservation-different methods like use of low temperatures, high temperatures, drying, canning,
preservation by salt and sugar.
Food processing, food preservation, packaging of food, grading of food (only definitions).
Food adulteration and Food additives-definitions; types of adulteration, harmful effects of adulteration.
Quality Marks – BIS-ISI (Indian Standards Institute); AGMARK (Agricultural Marketing).
Regulatory Body- FSSAI (Food Safety and Standards Authority of India) -a brief outline and its role in
monitoring food quality.
(ii) Food: the twin problems of production and access; food situation in the world; Food Security -integrated
and sustainable approach to food security for the developing countries.
Meaning of Food Security, need for food security. The problems in attaining food security - those of
production, storage and access. Integrated and sustainable approach to food security for the developing
countries including working for environmental sustainability and social and economic sustainability
through land reform, credit support to farmers, market support to farmers, inadequacies in the present
marketing system, ways to improve marketing system, improving access to food, ownership of seeds.
Food Security Law 2013, National Food Security Act, 2013 (NFSA, 2013)- main features.
Case study: Midday meal scheme in India.

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7. Environmental and Natural Resource Economics
(i) Definition: resources; scarcity and growth; natural resource accounting.
Classification of natural resources - on the basis of origin (abiotic and biotic), on the basis of renewability
(renewable and non-renewable), on the basis of development (potential and actual), on the basis of
distribution (ubiquitous and localised); scarcity and growth, natural resource accounting.
Classification of resources as renewable and non-renewable.
Definition, basic principles, advantages and disadvantages of Physical accounting.
(ii) GNP vs. other forms of measuring income.
GDP, GNP – definitions, advantages and disadvantages of using them as tools for measuring growth.
(iii) Economic status and welfare (net economic welfare, nature capital, ecological capital, etc.) Evaluation
and assessment of impacts: approaches and techniques of environment and social impact assessment;
environment impact assessment as a planning tool and a decision making instrument; interpreting
environment impact assessments.
A broad overview of the purpose of environmental economics.
Definition and classification: Defensive expenditure (its classification); natural/ ecological capital.
• Definition and objectives of ‘Environmental Impact Assessment’ (EIA).
• EIA framework:
– Necessity- screening.
– Key issues- scoping and focusing.
– What to study – assessment.
– Impact/ identification/evaluation of significance – evaluation.
– Identification of mitigating means – mitigation.
– Report preparation – documentation.
– Reviewing – monitoring.
• Designing an EIA for the following:
– Proposed construction of a dam (Social impact, Ecological impact).
– Proposed resort by the sea (Ecological impact).
– Proposed residential complex close to a forested area / national park in India (Ecological
impact).
Interpret the EIA as a good planning and decision-making tool.
(iv) Externalities: cost benefit analysis (social, ecological).
Externalities – definition, kinds (positive and negative), impacts.
Cost Benefit analysis - Definition, the process in brief, advantages and disadvantages.
EPR (Extended Producer Responsibility) - definition, examples, advantages.
(v) Natural capital regeneration.
What is natural capital? Kinds of natural capital; classification of ecosystem services, causes of
degradation (acid deposition, air pollution, deforestation, loss of biodiversity and emission of carbon
dioxide), ecological footprint and man’s disproportionate use of natural resources, importance of
preserving and regenerating natural capital.

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8. International Relations and the Environment
(i) Trans-national characteristics of environmental issues using case study of Amazonia, Trade in Wildlife
and Ozone Depletion.
Case study of Amazonia – ecological value of rainforests, causes for exploitation of Amazon forests,
reasons for acceleration of deforestation, effects of government policies, and possible solutions to the
problem.
Case study of ivory trade in Africa - reasons for flourishing trade of ivory in the past, steps taken to curb
the trade and the consequences of ban in trade.
Case study of ozone depletion - what is meant by ozone layer and how does it get depleted, (Chapman’s
cycle), potential effects of ozone depletion, common ozone depleting substances (halons, carbon
tetrachloride, CFCs, methyl chloroform, methyl bromide and HCFCs) and their life span in the
atmosphere; Ozone hole; steps taken to control ozone depletion.
(ii) Impact of international politics, national sovereignty and interest.
(iii) International trade: a theoretical perspective; free trade vs. protectionism; import barriers; domestic
industry vs. free trade; transnational companies - a historical perspective (colonialism and its lasting
impact today); trade between the developed and the developing countries - characteristics - terms of trade;
India's international trade - characteristics - major imports and exports - foreign exchange crises - the
export imperative and its impact on the environment; the case study of aquaculture in India; diversion of
scarce resource from production of subsistence needs to commercial products; toxic waste trade - extent
and impact; Globalisation - trade regimes (WTO, GATT, IPR) and their impact on developing countries.
Definition, advantages and disadvantages of globalization, free trade, protectionism.
Transnational Companies (TNCs) – definition; TNCs and environment – conflict of interest.
History of developing countries, trade with the developed countries (with special reference to India) with
regards to composition and terms of trade (export of primary goods and import of finished goods at higher
cost, overexploitation of primary natural resources leading to environment degradation.
Case study of aquaculture in India to understand the positive and negative impact of free trade.
Diversion of scarce natural resources from production for subsistence needs to commercial products.
Case study: Over reliance on ground water for Rice cultivation in Punjab (a brief understanding).
Toxic waste trade – definition, origin, factors sustaining it, impact on third world countries (example –
health and environmental impacts) and steps to mitigate it (Bamako and Basel Conventions).
GATT – the organization and its metamorphosis into WTO.
Principles and functions of WTO: creating a level playing field for international trade through MFN
(Most Favoured Nation), NT (National Treatment) and reduction of import barriers - tariff and nontariff
barriers and trading to comparative advantages.
Case study of Dispute Settlement by WTO -The U.S shrimp and Turtle case (1994).
Full forms of and areas addressed in the WTO, GATT, TRIPS, Agreement on Agriculture (AOA). A brief
understanding of how these agreements impacted India’s trade, food security, economic well-being,
environmental sustainability.
IPR: Definition of IPR and its types- (a) Patents (Products vs Process), (b) Trademark, (c) Copyright, (d)
Geographical Indication (GI), (e)Industrial design and (f) trade secrets.
A brief understanding of each of the above categories.
International aid:
A very brief role of the World Bank and IMF in providing international aid to developing countries, its
advantages and limitations.
Types of Aid: Tied and Untied Aid - advantages and limitations of each.

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PAPER II
PROJECT WORK – 30 MARKS
The project work carrying 30 marks needs to be undertaken under the guidance of the teacher. The teacher may
assign a project, or the student may choose one project of their choice. The project will be evaluated by a teacher
and a Visiting Examiner (who has specific expertise in the content of the project work) appointed locally and
approved by CISCE.
Evaluation Criteria for a Project Work:
Component Details Marks
Introduction / Purpose / Rationale A clear outline of the theme, its relevance, and the specific 5
with Objectives objectives of the study.
Content – Causes, Effects, and Comprehensive explanation of the topic, supported with a 8
Remedies with a Relevant Case relevant case study.
Study
Presentation and Analysis of Inclusion and interpretation of supporting material such as 8
Material pictures, graphs, data, articles, pie charts, histograms,
diagrams, fieldwork findings, surveys, etc.
Originality of Thought and Demonstration of independent thinking, innovative ideas, 4
Creative Solutions to Local and practical solutions addressing local environmental
Environmental Issues challenges.
Bibliography Properly formatted list of sources and references used in the 2
assignment.
Viva-Voce by External Examiner Assessment of understanding, explanation, and defence of 3
the project during the viva.
Total Marks 30
For the Viva-Voce, the external examiner will ask a few questions related to the candidate’s project.
Suggestive questions include:
1. Provide a brief synopsis of the project topic.
2. Describe, very briefly, the process and journey of completing the project.
3. What key learning outcomes did you gain from this project?
The marks for the project must be awarded by the external visiting examiner in consultation with the internal
examiner, based on the project evaluation format provided above.

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The project work could take one of the suggestive topics:
1. Address a current environmental problem (preferably at local or regional scale) and should include problem
identification and analysis, use of secondary data as well as some collection of primary data, design of
solution, documentation of the entire process in the form of a solution proposal.
2. Design and conduct an environment impact assessment. The candidates may use secondary data, demonstrate
their capacity to collect and analyse primary data by incorporating some primary data collected and use it in
a few sectors of their work.
3. Systematic monitoring of an aspect of the local environment. The candidate must use quantitative techniques
of monitoring, sampling scientifically. The data collected must be interpreted and presented in the report.
4. Field work and training in an environmental organisation (NGOs, Industrial Pollution Control Firms, Testing
Laboratories, etc.) for a period of not less than one month. This work should be focused on one area in the
syllabus. The candidate will produce a paper on the area of his/her work and training which will include
his/her experience and the special expertise that she/he has acquired.
5. Conduct a study on the density and population of plants growing in a particular area using the quadrat method.
6. Sustainable Development- a case study of a smart city- India or global with reference to the problems faced
and the successful management of the same using sustainable ideas.
7. A detailed analysis of the structure of population growth in India using population pyramids and analyse
the age and gender distribution influencing the socio-economic development of the country.
8. Prepare a List of raw materials used by a family for preparing 2/3 types of local dishes. Identify the flora
and/or fauna/microbe from each ingredient of the recipe. Study the processes in the preparation of the
recipe which if any, may involve the action of microbes.
9. Role of Satellite imagery and Artificial intelligence in disaster management for environmental conservation
with respect to any one of the following [ desertification/ floods/ landslides/volcanoes/droughts/
deforestation].
10. Impact of rising Eco tourism [ economic, social, cultural and ecological impact] with a relevant case study
in the Indian context and possible solutions to minimize negative impact.
11. Study of Biodiversity & Its Conservation [case study of In-situ / Ex -situ -any one method to be discussed
in detail (aim, process, advantages and its future implications)].
12. Assessment of Water Quality from two different sources of your locality with respect to any five
parameters and document the same with suitable inferences.
13. Comparative study of Assessment of air quality index in and around an urban area versus a rural area.
14. A comparative study of any two international agreements with an understanding of how these agreements
impacted India’s trade, food security, economic well-being, environmental sustainability.
15. A comparative study of sustainable agriculture versus commercial cropping methods with respect to benefits/
limitations and future prospects.
16. A detailed study of any one of the processes: Post harvest practices in management of agricultural
produce/Food processing methods/ food preservation techniques/food adulteration; with reference to method,
advantages, limitations, impacts and solutions.

Guidelines for teachers:
1. It must be emphasised that the process of doing the project is as important as the finished product.
2. Once the project/projects are chosen, there should be a process of brainstorming to encourage students to
make out a draft/structure for the project.
3. During the brainstorming/discussion, the teacher should discuss the assessment criteria with the students.
4. Students must be cautioned against plagiarism.
5. Marks must be awarded for content and originality and not for decorative elements and embellishments.
6. Projects must be the original work of the student and must be handwritten.
NOTE: No question paper for Project Work will be set by CISCE.

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
1. AGMARK: Agricultural Mark
2. AOA: Agreement on Agriculture
3. B.O.D: Biochemical Oxygen Demand
4. C.O.D: Chemical Oxygen Demand
5. CFC: Chlorofluorocarbon
6. CNG: Compressed Natural Gas
7. CPCB: Central Pollution Control Board
8. DEWATS: Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System
9. EIA: Environmental Impact Assessment
10. EPR: Extended Producer Responsibility
11. FSSAI: Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
12. GATT: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
13. GDP: Gross Domestic Product
14. GI: Geographical Indication
15. GNP: Gross National Product
16. HCFC: Hydrochlorofluorocarbon
17. HYV: High Yielding Variety
18. IMF: International monetary Fund
19. IPM: Integrated Pest Management
20. IPR: Intellectual Property Rights
21. ISI: Indian Standards Institute
22. JFM: Joint Forest Management
23. MFN: Most Favoured Nation
24. MGNREGA: Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
25. NAAQM: National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring
26. NAMP: National Air Quality Monitoring Programme
27. NDIR: Non-Dispersive Infrared
28. NEERI: National Environmental Engineering Research Institute
29. NFSA: National Food Security Act
30. NT: National Treatment
31. PCB: Pollution Control Board
32. TRIPS: The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
33. VB-G RAM G: Viksit Bharat–Guarantee for Rozgar and Ajeevika Mission (Gramin)
34. WTO: World Trade Organization

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