AP EAPCET 2026 Syllabus for Agriculture, Pharmacy

APEAPCET 2026 - BOTANY SYLLABUS

SUBJECT: BOTANY

UNIT-I: DIVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD:

The living world: What is living?, Diversity in the living world; Taxonomic categories and
taxonomical aids.

Biological Classification: Five kingdom classification - Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and
Animalia, Three domains of life (Six kingdom classification), Viruses, Viroids, Prions & Lichens.

Science of plants– Botany: Origin, Development, Scope of Botany and Branches of Botany.

Plant Kingdom: Salient features, C lassification and alternation of g e n e r a t i o n s o f the plants of
the following groups - Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms.

UNIT-II: STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN PLANTS- MORPHOLOGY:

Morphology of flowering Plants: Vegetative: Parts of a typical Angiospermic plant; Vegetative
morphology and modifications - Root, Stem and Leaf- types; Venation, Phyllotaxy. Reproductive:
Inflorescence - Racemose, Cymose and special types (in brief). Flower: Parts of a flower and their
detailed description; Aestivation, Placentation, Fruits: Types – True, False and Parthenocarpic fruits,
Seeds (in brief); List of some important edible fruits.

UNIT-III: REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS:

Modes of Reproduction: Asexual reproduction, Binary fission, Sporulation, budding, fragmentation,
vegetative propagation in plants, Sexual reproduction in brief, Overview of angiosperm life cycle.

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants: Stamen, microsporangium, pollen grain; Pistil,
megasporangium (ovule) and embryo sac; Development of male and female gametophytes; Pollination
- Types, agents, Out breeding devices and Pollen - Pistil interaction; Double Fertilization; Post
fertilization events: Development of endosperm and embryo; development of seed, Structure of
Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous seeds, Significance of fruit and seed. Special modes - Apomixis,
parthenocarpy, polyembryony.

UNIT-IV: PLANT SYSTEMATICS:

Taxonomy of angiosperms: Introduction, Types of Systems of classification (In brief). Semi- Technical
description of a typical flowering plant; Description of Families: Fabaceae, Solanaceae and Liliaceae.

UNIT-V: CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION:

Cell- The Unit of Life: Cell- Cell theory and cell as the basic unit of life- overview of the cell;
Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic cells - Ultra Structure of Plant cell (structure in detail and functions in
brief), Cell membrane, Cell wall, Cell organelles: Endoplasmic reticulum, Mitochondria, Plastids,
Ribosomes, Golgi bodies, Vacuoles, Lysosomes, Microbodies, Centrosome and Centriole, Cilia,
Flagella, Cytoskeleton and Nucleus. Chromosomes: Number, structural organization, Nucleosome.

Biomolecules: How to analyse chemical composition; primary and secondary metabolites,
Biomacromolecules, Proteins, Polysaccharides, Nucleic acids, Structure of Proteins, Nature of
bond linking monomers in a polymer, Dynamic state of body constituents-concept of metabolism,
Metabolic basis for living, the living state.

Cell cycle and Cell Division: Cell cycle, Mitosis, Meiosis - significance.

UNIT-VI: INTERNAL ORGANISATION OF PLANTS:

Histology and Anatomy of Flowering Plants: Tissues – Types, structure and functions; Meristematic:
Permanent tissues – Simple and Complex tissues. Tissue systems – Types, structure and function:
Epidermal, Ground and Vascular tissue systems, Anatomy of Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous
plants - Root, Stem and Leaf, Secondary growth in Dicot stem and Dicot root.

UNIT-VII: PLANT ECOLOGY:

Ecological Adaptations, Succession and Ecological Services: Introduction. Plant communities and
Ecological adaptations: Hydrophytes, Mesophytes and Xerophytes. Plant succession. Ecological
services- Pollination, Carbon fixation, Oxygen release and how to sustain ecological functions.

UNIT-VIII: PLANT PHYSIOLOGY:

Transport in Plants: Means of Transport- Diffusion, Facilitated Diffusion, Passive symports and
antiports, Active Transport, Comparison of Different Transport Processes, Plant-Water Relations-
Water Potential, Osmosis, Plasmolysis, Imbibition, Long Distance Transport of Water- Water
Movement up a Plant, Root Pressure, Transpiration pull, Transpiration- Opening and Closing of
Stomata, Transpiration and Photosynthesis - a compromise; Uptake and Transport of Mineral
Nutrients- Uptake of Mineral Ions, Translocation of Mineral Ions, Phloem transport: Flow from
Source to Sink-The Pressure Flow or Mass Flow Hypothesis.

Mineral Nutrition: Methods to study the Mineral Requirements of Plants, Essential Mineral Elements
– Criteria for Essentiality, Macronutrients, Micronutrients, Role of Macro – and Micro – nutrients,
Deficiency Symptoms of Essential Elements, Toxicity of Micronutrients, Mechanism of Absorption of
Elements, Translocation of Solutes, Soil as Reservoir of Essential Elements, Metabolism of Nitrogen –
Nitrogen Cycle, Biological Nitrogen Fixation, Symbiotic nitrogen fixation, Nodule Formation.

Enzymes: Chemical Reactions, Enzymatic Conversions, Nature of Enzyme Action, Factors Affecting
Enzyme Activity, Temperature and pH, Concentration of Substrate, Classification and Nomenclature
of Enzymes, Co-factors.

Photosynthesis in Higher Plants: Early Experiments, Site of Photosynthesis, Pigments Involved in
Photosynthesis, Light Reaction, The Electron Transport-Splitting of Water, Cyclic and Noncyclic Photo-
phosphorylation, Chemiosmotic Hypothesis, Biosynthetic phase- The Primary Acceptor of CO2, The
Calvin Cycle, The C4 Pathway, Photorespiration, Factors affecting Photosynthesis.

Respiration of Plants: Cellular respiration, Glycolysis, Fermentation, Aerobic Respiration -
Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle, Electron Transport System (ETS) and Oxidative Phosphorylation, The
Respiratory Balance Sheet, Amphibolic Pathway, Respiratory Quotient.

Plant Growth and Development: G r o w t h - Plant Growth, Phases of Growth, Growth Rates,
Conditions for Growth, Differentiation, Dedifferentiation and Redifferentiation, Development, Plant
Growth Regulators - Physiological Effects of Plant Growth Regulators- Auxins, Gibberellins,
Cytokinins, Ethylene, Abscisic acid; Seed Dormancy, Photoperiodism , Vernalisation.

UNIT-IX: MICROBIOLOGY:

Bacteria: Morphology of Bacteria, Bacterial cell structure - Nutrition, Reproduction-Sexual
Reproduction, Conjugation, Transformation, Transduction, The importance of Bacteria to Humans.
Viruses: Discovery, Classification of Viruses, structure of Viruses, Multiplication of Bacteriophages –
the Lytic cycle, The Lysogenic Cycle, Viral diseases in Plants, Viral diseases in Humans.

UNIT- X: GENETICS:

Principles of Inheritance and Variation: Mendel’s Experiments, Inheritance of one gene
(Monohybrid Cross)-Back cross and Test cross, Law of Dominance, Law of Segregation or Law of
purity of gametes, Deviations from Mendelian concept of dominance - Incomplete Dominance, Co-
dominance, Explanation of the concept of dominance, Inheritance of two genes- Law of Independent
Assortment, Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance, Linkage and Recombination, Mutations, Significance
of mutations.

UNIT- XI: MOLECULAR BIOLOGY:

Molecular Basis of inheritance: The DNA- Structure of Polynucleotide Chain, Packaging of DNA
Helix. The Search for Genetic Material, Transforming Principle, Biochemical Characterisation of
Transforming Principle, The Genetic Material is DNA, Properties of Genetic Material (DNA versus
RNA), RNA World, Replication - The Experimental Proof, The Machinery and the Enzymes,
Transcription-Transcription Unit, Transcription Unit and the Gene, Types of RNA and the process of
Transcription, Genetic Code-Mutations and Genetic Code, tRNA- the Adapter Molecule, Translation,
Regulation of Gene Expression-The Lac operon.

UNIT-XII: BIOTECHNOLOGY:

Principles and processes of Biotechnology: Principles of Biotechnology-Construction of the first
artificial recombinant DNA molecule, Tools of Recombinant DNA Technology-Restriction Enzymes,
Cloning Vectors, Competent Host (For Transformation with Recombinant DNA), Processes of
Recombinant DNA Technology- Isolation of the Genetic Material (DNA), Cutting of DNA at
Specific Locations, Separation and isolation of DNA fragments, Insertion of isolated gene into a
suitable vector, Amplification of Gene of Interest using PCR, Insertion of Recombinant DNA into the

Host, Cell/Organism, Selection of Transformed host cells, Obtaining the Foreign Gene Product,
Downstream Processing.

Biotechnology and its applications: Biotechnological Applications in Agriculture-Bt Cotton, Pest
Resistant Plants, Other applications of Biotechnology - Insulin, Gene therapy, Molecular Diagnosis,
ELISA, DNA fingerprinting, Transgenic plants, Bio-safety and Ethical issues- Biopiracy.

UNIT-XIII: PLANTS, MICROBES & HUMAN WELFARE:

Strategies for enhancement in food production: Plant Breeding- What is Plant Breeding? Wheat and
Rice, Sugarcane, Millets, Plant Breeding for Disease Resistance, Methods of breeding for disease
resistance, Mutation, Plant Breeding for Developing Resistance to Insect Pests, Plant Breeding for
improved Food Quality, Single Cell Protein (SCP), Tissue Culture.

Microbes in Human Welfare: Microbes in Household Products, Microbes in Industrial Products-
Fermented Beverages, Antibiotics, Chemicals, Enzymes and other Bioactive Molecules, Microbes in Sewage
Treatment, Primary treatment, Secondary treatment or Biological treatment, Microbes in Production of Biogas,
Microbes as Biocontrol Agents, Biological control of pests and diseases, Microbes as Biofertilisers, Challenges
posed by Microbes.

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APEAPCET 2026 - ZOOLOGY SYLLABUS

SUBJECT: ZOOLOGY

UNIT-1: ZOOLOGY - Diversity of Living World:

What is life?; Nature, Scope & meaning of zoology; Branches of Zoology; Need for classification-
Zoos as tools for study of taxonomy; Basic principles of Classification: Biological system of
classification- (Phylogenetic classification only); Levels or Hierarchy of classification; Nomenclature
- Bi &Trinominal; Species concept; Kingdom Animalia; Biodiversity- Meaning and distribution,
(Genetic diversity, Species diversity, Ecosystem diversity alpha,beta and gama), other attributes of
biodiversity, role of biodiversity, threats to biodiveristy, methods of conservation, IUCN Red data
books, Conservation of wild life in India -Legislation, Preservation, Organisations, Threatened
species.

UNIT-2: STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS:

Levels of organisation, Multicellularity: Diploblastic & Triploblastic conditions; Asymmetry,
Symmetry: Radial symmetry, and Bilateral symmetry (Brief account giving one example for each
type from the representative phyla); Acoelomates, Pseudocoelomates and Eucoelomates:
Schizo&Entero coelomates (Brief account of formation of coelom); Tissues: Epithelial, Connective,
Muscular and Nervous tissues.

UNIT-3: ANIMAL DIVERSITY-I: INVERTEBRATE PHYLA:

General Characters –Classification up to Classes with two or three examples – (Brief account only).
Porifera; Cnidaria; Ctenophora; Platyhelminthes; Nematoda; Annelida (Include Earthworm as a type
study adhering to NCERT text book); Arthropoda; Mollusca; Echinodermata; Hemichordata.

UNIT-4: ANIMAL DIVERSITY-II: PHYLUM: CHORDATA:

General Characters – Classification up to Classes - (Brief account only) with two or three examples).
Phylum: Chordata; Sub phylum: Urochordata; Sub phylum: Cephalochordata; Sub phylum :
Vertebrata; Super class: Agnatha, Class Cyclostomata; Super class: Gnathostomata, Super class
Pisces, Class: Chondricthyes, Class: Osteichthyes; Tetrapoda, Class: Amphibia (Include Frog as a
type study adhering to NCERT text book), Class: Reptilia, Class: Aves, Class: Mammalia.

UNIT-5: LOCOMOTION & REPRODUCTION IN PROTOZOA:

Locomotion: Definition, types of locomotor structures Pseudopodia (basic idea of Pseudopodia
without going into different types), Flagella & Cilia (Brief account giving two examples each);
Flagellar& Ciliary movement- Effective & Recovery strokes in Euglena, Synchronal &Metachronal
movements in Paramecium; Reproduction: Definition, types. Asexual Reproduction: Transeverse
binary fission in Paramecium & Longitudinal binary fission in Euglena. Multiple fission, Sexual
Reproduction.

UNIT-6: BIOLOGY IN HUMAN WELFARE:

Parasitism and parasitic adaptation; Health and disease: introduction (follow NCERT); Life cycle,
Pathogenecity, Treatment & Prevention (Brief account only) 1. Entamoeba histolytica2. Plasmodium
vivax 3. Ascaris lumbricoides 4. Wuchereria bancrofti; Brief account of pathogenecity, treatment &
prevention of Typhoid, Pneumonia, Common cold, & Ring worm; Drugs and Alcohol abuse.

UNIT-7: Type Study Periplaneta americana (Cockroach): Habitat and Habits, External features,
Locomotion, Digestive System, Circulatory System, Respiratory System, Excretory System, Nervous
System - Sense organs Structure of Ommatidium, Reproductive System.

UNIT-8: ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT:

Organisms and Environment: Ecology, Population, Communities, Habitat, Niche, Biome and
Ecosphere (definitions only); Ecosystem : Elementary aspects only: Abiotic factors - Light,
Temperature, Water, Soil and Pressure (Biological effects only), Ecological adaptations Population
interactions. Ecosystems – Types, Components, Lake Ecosystem, Food Chains, Food Web,
Productivity and Energy Flow in Ecosystem, Ecological Pyramids – Pyramid of numbers Biomass
and energy. Nutrient Cycles – Carbon, Nitrogen and Phosphorous Cycles (brief account), Population
attributes: Growth, Natality and Mortality, Age distribution, Population regulation. Environmental
Issues: Air Pollution and its control, Noise Pollution, Water Pollution and its control, Soil Pollution,
Greenhouse effect and Global Warming, Ozone Depletion in the Stratosphere, Degradation by
improper resource utilization and maintenance. The Chipko movement of Garhwal Himalayas.

UNIT-9: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY-I:

Digestion and absorption: Alimentary canal and Digestive glands: Role of digestive enzymes and
gastrointestinal hormones: Peristalsis, digestion, absorption and assimilation of proteins,
carbohydrates and fats, egestion, Calorific value of proteins, carbohydrates and fats (for box item –
not to be evaluated): Nutritional disorders: Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM), indigestion,
constipation, vomiting, Jaundice, Diarrhoea, Kwashiorkor.

Breathing and Respiration: Respiratory organs in animals; Respiratory system in humans;
Mechanism of breathing and its regulation in humans - Exchange of gases, transport of gases and
regulation of respiration, Respiratory volumes; Respiratory disorders: Asthma, Emphysema,
Occupational respiratory disorders - Asbestosis, Silicosis, Siderosis, Black Lung Disease in coal
miners, .

UNIT-10: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY-II:

10-A) Body Fluids and Circulation: Lymphatic system, Clotting of blood; Human circulatory
system - structure of human heart and blood vessels; Cardiac cycle, Cardiac output, double
circulation, regulation of cardiac activity; Disorders of circulatory system: Hypertension, coronary
artery disease, angina pectoris, heart failure.

10-B) Excretory products and their elimination: Modes of excretion- Ammonotelism, Ureotelism,
Uricotelism, Human excretory system - structure of kidney and nephron; Urine formation, mechanism
of concentration of the filterate osmoregulation; Regulation of kidney function -Renin-Angiotensin -
Aldosterone system, Atrial Natriuretic Factor, ADH and diabetes insipidus; Role of other organs in
excretion; Disorders: Uraemia, renal failure, renal calculi, nephritis, dialysis using artificial kidney.

UNIT-11: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY-III:

11-A) Muscular and Skeletal system: Skeletal muscle - ultra structure; Contractile proteins &
muscle contraction, muscle fatigue, coricycle types of muscle fibers. The Skelton : Axial Skelton,
appendicular skelton, types of joints, structure of synovial joint Skeletal system, and its functions:
Joints, Disorders of the muscular and skeletal system: myasthenia gravis, tetany, muscular dystrophy,
arthritis, osteoporosis, gout, Rigor mortis.

11-B) Neural control and co-ordination: Human Neural System : Central nervous system – Brain,
Spinal Cord, Peripheral nervous system – Cranial nerves and spinal nerves, somatic neural system,
autonomic neural system, generation and conduction of nerve impulse; synaptic transmission, Reflex
action and reflex arc. Sensory reception and processing, the eye and mechanism of vision. The ear and
mechanism of hearing.

UNIT-12: HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY-IV:

12-A) Endocrine system and chemical co-ordination: Endocrine glands and hormones; Human
endocrine system - Hypothalamus, Pituitary, Pineal, Thyroid, Parathyroid, thymus, Adrenal,
Pancreas, Gonads; Mechanism of hormone action elementary idea only, Role of hormones as
messengers and regulators; Hypo and Hyper activity and related disorders: Common disorders -
Dwarfism, acromegaly, cretinism, goiter, exophthalmic goiter, diabetes, Addison’s disease,
Cushing’s syndrome.

12-B) Immune system: Basic concepts of Immunology – Lines of Immunity, Cells of Immune
Systems, Organs of Immune System, Soluble Mediators of Immunity, antigens, types of Immunity -
Innate Immunity, Acquired Immunity, Active and Passive Immunity, Cell mediated Immunity and
Humoral Immunity, Vaccination or Immunization, Immunological Disorders, HIV and AIDS.

UNIT-13: HUMAN REPRODUCTION:

13-A) Human Reproductive System: Male and female reproductive systems; Microscopic anatomy
of testis & ovary; Gametogenesis, Spermatogenesis & Oogenesis; Menstrual cycle; Fertilization,
Embryo development upto blastocyst formation, Implantation gastrulation organogenesis; Pregnancy,
placenta formation, Parturition, Lactation (elementary idea) .

13-B) Reproductive Health: Need for reproductive health and prevention of sexually transmitted
diseases (STD); Birth control - Need and methods, contraception, and medical termination of
pregnancy (MTP); Amniocentesis; infertility and assisted reproductive technologies - IVF-ET, ZIFT,
GIFT, AI, ICSI, surrogacy (elementary idea for general awareness.

UNIT-14: GENETICS:

Heredity and variations. Mendel’s laws of inheritance with reference to Drosophila(Drosophila
melanogaster- Grey, Black body colour; Long, Vestigial wings), Pleiotrophy, Multiple alleles and
Inheritance of blood groups, Rh-factor, Co-dominance ( Blood groups as example), elementary idea
of polygenic inheritance, skin colour in humans, Sex- determination- in humans, birds, Fumea, genic
balance theory of sex determination, Haplodiploidy in honey bees; Sex linked inheritance-
Haemophilia and Colourblindness, Mendelian disorders in humans- Thalassemia, Haemophilia,
Sickle cell anaemia, cystic fibrosis, Phenylketonuria, Alkaptonuria; Chromosomal disorders- Down’s
syndrome, Turner’s syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome; Genome, Human Genome Project, and DNA
finger printing.

UNIT-15: ORGANIC EVOLUTION:

Origin of Life, Biological evolution and Evidences for biological evolution (Palaeontological,
comparative anatomical, embryological and molecular evidences): Theories of evolution:
Lamarckism (in brief), Darwin’s theory of Evolution – Natural Selection with example
(Kettlewell’s experiments on Biston bitularia), Mutation Theory of Hugo De Vries: Modern synthetic
theory of Evolution – Hardy – Weinberg Law: Types of Natural Selection: Gene flow and genetic
drift: Variations (mutations and genetic recombination): Adaptive radiation – viz., Darwin’s finches
and adaptive radiation in marsupials: Human evolutions: Speciation – Allopatric, sympatric:
Reproductive isolation.

UNIT-16: APPLIED BIOLOGY:

Animal Husbandry: Pisciculture, Poultry management Apiculture (beekeeping) fishery, Dairy
management: Animal breeding: Bio-Medical Technology, Diagnostic Imaging X-ray, CT scan, MRI,
ECG, EEG, ELISA, Application of Biotechnology in health; Human insulin, and vaccine production;
Gene Therapy; Transgenic animals; Vaccines, MABs, Cancer biology, stem cells.

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APEAPCET 2026 - PHYSICS SYLLABUS
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
1. PHYSICAL WORLD: What is physics? Scope and excitement of physics. Physics, technology
and society, Fundamental forces in nature, Nature of physical laws

2. UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS: The international system of units, Measurement of Length,
Measurement of Large Distances, Estimation of Very Small Distances, Size of a Molecule, Range of
Lengths, Measurement of Mass, Range of Masses, Measurement of time, Accuracy, precision of
instruments and errors in measurement, Systematic errors, random errors, least count error, Absolute
Error, Relative Error and Percentage Error, Combination of Errors, Significant figures, Rules for
Arithmetic Operations with Significant Figures, Rounding off the Uncertain Digits, Rules for
Determining the Uncertainty in the Results of Arithmetic Calculations, Dimensions of Physical
Quantities, Dimensional Formulae and dimensional equations, Dimensional Analysis and its
Applications, Checking the Dimensional Consistency of Equations, Deducing Relation among the
Physical Quantities.

3. MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE: Position, path length and displacement, average velocity and
average speed, instantaneous velocity and speed, acceleration, kinematic equations for uniformly
accelerated motion, relative velocity.

4. MOTION IN A PLANE: Scalars and vectors, position and displacement vectors, equality of
vectors, multiplication of vectors by real numbers, addition and subtraction of vectors - graphical
method, resolution of vectors, vector addition - analytical method, motion in a plane, position vector
and displacement, velocity, acceleration, motion in a plane with constant acceleration, relative
velocity in two dimensions, projectile motion, equation of path of a projectile, time of maximum
height, maximum height of a projectile, horizontal range of projectile, uniform circular motion.

5. LAWS OF MOTION: Aristotle’s fallacy, The Law of inertia, Newton’s first law of motion,
Newton’s second law of motion- momentum, impulse, Newton’s third law of motion, conservation
of momentum,Equilibrium of a particle, Common forces in mechanics, friction, types of friction,
static, kinetic and rolling frictions, Circular motion, Motion of a car on a level road, Motion of a car
on a banked road, solving problems in mechanics.

6. WORK, ENERGY AND POWER: The Scalar Product, Notions of work and kinetic energy, The
work-energy theorem, Work, Kinetic energy, Work done by a variable force, The work-energy
theorem for a variable force, The concept of Potential Energy, The conservation of Mechanical
Energy, The Potential Energy of a spring, Various forms of energy, Heat, Chemical Energy, Electrical
Energy, The Equivalence of Mass and Energy, Nuclear Energy, The Principle of Conservation of
Energy, Power, Collisions, Elastic and Inelastic Collisions, Collisions in one dimension, Coefficient
of Restitution and its determination, Collisions in Two Dimensions.

7. SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION: Rigid body motion, Centre of
mass, Centre of Gravity, Motion of centre of mass, Linear momentum of a system of particles, Vector
product of two vectors, Angular velocity and its relation with linear velocity, Angular acceleration,
Kinematics of rotational motion about a fixed axis, Moment of force (Torque), Angular momentum
of particle, Torque and angular momentum for a system of a particles - conservation of angular
momentum, Equilibrium of a rigid body, Principle of moments, Moment of inertia, Dynamics of
rotational motion about a fixed axis, Angular momentum in case of rotation about a fixed axis -
conservation of angular momentum, Rolling motion, Kinetic Energy of Rolling Motion.
8. OSCILLATIONS: Periodic and oscillatory motions, Period and frequency, Displacement,
Simple harmonic motion (S.H.M.), Simple harmonic motion and uniform circular motion, Velocity
and acceleration in simple harmonic motion, Force law for Simple harmonic Motion, Energy in
simple harmonic motion, some systems executing Simple Harmonic Motion, Oscillations due to a
spring, The Simple Pendulum, damped simple harmonic motion, Forced oscillations and resonance.

9. GRAVITATION: Kepler’s laws Law of Orbits, Law of Areas, Law of Periods, Universal law of
gravitation, central forces, the gravitational constant, Acceleration due to gravity of the earth,
Acceleration due to gravity below and above the surface of earth, Gravitational potential energy,
Escape speed, Earth satellites, Energy of an orbiting satellite, Geostationary and polar satellites,
Weightlessness.

10. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS: Elastic behavior of solids, Stress and strain,
Hooke’s law, Stress-strain curve, Elastic moduli, Young’s Modulus, Determination of Young’s
Modulus of the Material of a Wire, Shear Modulus, Bulk Modulus, Poisson’s ratio, Elastic potential
energy in a stretched wire, Applications of elastic behavior of materials.

11. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS: Pressure, Pascal’s Law, Variation of Pressure
with Depth, Atmospheric Pressure and Gauge Pressure, Hydraulic Machines, Archimedes’ Principle,
Streamline flow, Bernoulli’s principle, Speed of Efflux, Torricelli’s Law, Venturi- meter, Blood Flow
and Heart Attack, Dynamic Lift, Viscosity, Variation of Viscosity of fluids with temperature, Stokes’
Law, Reynolds number, Critical Velocity, Surface tension and Surface Energy, Angle of Contact,
Drops and Bubbles, Capillary Rise, Detergents and Surface Tension.

12. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER: Temperature and heat, Measurement of
temperature, Ideal-gas equation and absolute temperature, Thermal expansion, Specific heat capacity,
Calorimetry, Change of state, Triple Point, Regelation, Latent Heat, Heat transfer – Conduction,
convection and radiation, Black body Radiation, Greenhouse Effect, Newton’s law of cooling and its
experimental verification.

13. THERMODYNAMICS: Thermal equilibrium, Zeroth law of thermodynamics, Heat, Internal
Energy and work, First law of thermodynamics, Specific heat capacity, Specific heat capacity of
water, Thermodynamic state variables and equation of State, Thermodynamic processes, Quasi- static
process, Isothermal Process, Adiabatic Process, Isochoric Process, Isobaric process, Cyclic process,
Heat engines , Refrigerators and heat pumps, Second law of thermodynamics, Reversible and
irreversible processes, Carnot engine, Carnot’s theorem.

14. KINETIC THEORY: Molecular nature of matter, Behaviour of gases, Boyle’s Law, Charles’
Law, Kinetic theory of an ideal gas, Pressure of an Ideal Gas, Kinetic interpretation of temperature,
Law of equipartition of energy, Specific heat capacity, Monatomic Gases, Diatomic Gases,
Polyatomic Gases, Specific Heat Capacity of Solids, Specific Heat Capacity of Water, Mean free
path.

15. WAVES: Transverse and longitudinal waves, wave displacement relation in a progressive wave,
amplitude and phase, wavelength and angular wave number, period, angular frequency and frequency,
the speed of a travelling wave, speed of a transverse wave on stretched string, speed of a longitudinal
wave (speed of sound), the principle of superposition of waves, reflection of waves, standing waves
and normal modes, beats, Doppler effect – source moving & Observer stationary, observer moving
and source stationary, both observer and source are moving, applications of Doppler effect.
16. RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS: Reflection of Light by Spherical Mirrors,
Sign convention, Focal length of spherical mirror, Mirror equation, refraction, total internal reflection,
total internal reflection in nature and its technological applications, refraction at spherical surfaces
and by lenses, power of a lens, combination of thin lenses in contact, refraction through a prism,
dispersion by a prism, natural phenomena due to sunlight – Rainbow, Scattering of light, optical
instruments, the eye, the simple and compound microscopes, refracting telescope and Cassegrain
reflecting telescope.

17. WAVE OPTICS: Huygens principle, refraction and reflection of plane waves using Huygens
principle: Refraction of a plane wave, Refraction in a rarer medium (at the denser medium boundary),
reflection of a plane wave by a plane surface, the Doppler effect, coherent and incoherent addition of
waves, interference of light waves and Young‘s experiment, Diffraction, Single slit, seeing the single
slit diffraction pattern resolving power of optical instruments, Determination of resolving power of
eye, the validity of ray optics, Polarization: Polarization by scattering, Polarisation by reflection.

18. ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS: Electric charge, conductors and insulators, charging
by induction, basic properties of electric charges, additivity of charges, conservation of charge,
quantization of charge, Coulomb’s law, forces between multiple charges, electric field, electric field
due to a system of charges, physical significance of electric field, electric field lines, electric flux,
electric dipole, the field of an electric dipole for points on the axial line and on the equatorial plane,
physical significance of dipoles, dipole in a uniform external field, continuous charge distribution,
Gauss’s law, Applications of Gauss’s Law: Field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged
wire, field due to uniformly charged infinite plane sheet , field due to uniformly charged thin spherical
shell.

19. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE: Electrostatic potential, potential
due to a point charge, potential due to an electric dipole, potential due to a system of charges,
equipotential surfaces, relation between field and potential, potential energy of a system of charges,
potential energy in an external field, potential energy of a single charge, potential energy of a system
of two charges in an external field, potential energy of a dipole in an external field, electrostatics of
conductors, dielectrics and polarisation, electric displacement, capacitors and capacitance, the parallel
plate capacitor, effect of dielectric on capacitance, combination of capacitors, capacitors in series,
capacitors in parallel, energy stored in a capacitor, Van de Graaff generator.

20. CURRENT ELECTRICITY: Electric current, electric current in conductors, Ohm’s law, drift
of electrons and the origin of resistivity, mobility, limitations of Ohm’s law, resistivity of various
materials, colour code of resistors, Temperature dependence of resistivity, electrical energy, power.
Combination of Resistors, Series and Parallel, Cells, EMF, internal resistance, cells in series and in
parallel, Kirchhoff’s rules, Wheatstone Bridge, Meter Bridge, Potentiometer.

21. MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM: Magnetic force, sources and fields, magnetic
field, Lorentz force, magnetic force on a current carrying conductor, motion in a magnetic field,
helical motion of charged particles, motion in combined electric and magnetic fields, , velocity
selector, cyclotron, magnetic field due to a current element, Biot – Savart’s law, Magnetic field on
the axis of a circular current loop, Ampere’s circuital law, the solenoid and the toroid, force between
two parallel current carrying conductors, the ampere (UNIT), torque on current loop, magnetic dipole,
torque on a rectangular current loop in a uniform magnetic field, circular current loop as a magnetic
dipole, the magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron, the Moving Coil Galvanometer;
conversion into ammeter and voltmeter.

22. MAGNETISM AND MATTER: The bar magnet, the magnetic field lines, bar magnet as an
equivalent solenoid, The dipole in a uniform magnetic field, the electrostatic analog, Magnetism and
Gauss’s Law, The Earth’s magnetism, magnetic declination and dip, magnetization and
magnetic intensity,magnetic properties of materials – Diamagnetism, Paramagnetism and
Ferromagnetism, permanent magnets and electromagnets.

23. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION: The experiments of Faraday and Henry, magnetic
flux, Faraday’s Law of induction, Lenz’s law and conservation of energy, motional electromotive
force, energy consideration - a quantitative study, Eddy currents, inductance, mutual inductance, self-
inductance, AC generator.

24. ALTERNATING CURRENT: AC voltage applied to a resistor, representation of AC current
and voltage by rotating vectors - Phasors, AC voltage applied to an inductor, AC voltage applied to a
capacitor, AC voltage applied to a series LCR circuit, Phasor – diagram solution, analytical solution,
resonance, sharpness of resonance,Power in AC circuit: The power factor, Wattless current LC
oscillations, transformers.

25. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES: Displacement Current, Maxwell’s equations,
electromagnetic waves, sources of electromagnetic waves, nature of electromagnetic waves,
electromagnetic spectrum: radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves, visible rays, ultraviolet rays, X-
rays, gamma rays.

26. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER: Electron emission, Photoelectric Effect,
Hertz’s observations, Hallwachs and Lenard’s observations, experimental study of photoelectric
effect, effect of intensity of light on photocurrent, effect of potential on photoelectric current, effect
of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential, Photoelectric effect and Wave theory of
Light, Einstein’s Photoelectric equation, Energy Quantum of Radiation, particle nature of light, the
photon, wave nature of matter, photocell, Davisson and Germer Experiment

27. ATOMS: Alpha particle scattering and Rutherford’s nuclear model of atom, alpha particle
trajectory, electron orbits, atomic spectra, spectral series, Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, energy
levels, Franck – Hertz experiment, the line spectra of the hydrogen atom, deBroglie’s explanation of
Bohr’s second postulate of quantization.

28. NUCLEI: Atomic masses and composition of nucleus, discovery of neutron, size of the nucleus,
Mass - Energy, Nuclear Binding Energy, The Binding energy per Nucleon and its variation with Mass
Number, Nuclear Force, Radioactivity - Law of radioactive decay, half-life and mean life of a
Radioactive material, Alpha decay, Beta decay and Gamma decay, Nuclear Energy, Fission, Nuclear
reactor, nuclear fusion, energy generation in stars, controlled thermonuclear fusion.

29. SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS: MATERIALS, DEVICES AND SIMPLE
CIRCUITS: Classification of metals, conductors, and semiconductors on the basis of conductivity
and energy bands, Band theory of solids, Intrinsic semiconductor, Extrinsic semiconductor, p-type
semiconductor, n-type semiconductor, p-n junction, forward bias, reverse bias, Semiconductor diode,
Application of junction diode as a rectifier, Zener Diode, Zener Diode as a voltage regulator,
Optoelectronic junction devices, Photodiode, light emitting diode, solar cell. Junction transistor,
structure and action, Basic transistor circuit configurations and transistor characteristics, transistor as
a switch and as an amplifier (CE – Configuration), Feedback amplifier and transistor oscillator,
Digital Electronics and Logic gates, NOT, OR, AND, NAND and NOR Gates, Integrated circuits.

30. COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS: Elements of a Communication system, basic terminology
used in electronic communication systems, bandwidth of signals, bandwidth of transmission medium,
propagation of electromagnetic waves, ground waves, sky waves, space wave, modulation and its
necessity, size of the antenna or aerial, effective power radiated by an antenna, mixing up of signals
from different transmitters, amplitude modulation, production of amplitude modulated wave,
detection of amplitude modulated wave.

APEAPCET 2026 - CHEMISTRY SYLLABUS
SUBJECT: CHEMISTRY

Unit-1: ATOMIC STRUCTURE: Sub Atomic particles, Atomic models, Developments to the
Bohr’s model of atom; Wave nature of electromagnetic radiation; Particle nature of electromagnetic
radiation, Planck’ s quantum theory; Evidence for the quantized electronic Energy levels : Atomic
spectra, Bohr’s model for Hydrogen atom; Explanation of line spectrum of hydrogen; Limitations
of Bohr’s model; Quantum mechanical considerations of sub atomic particles; Dual behaviour of
matter; Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle; Quantum mechanical model of an atom. Important
features of Quantum mechanical model of atom; Orbitals and quantum numbers; Shapes of atomic
orbitals; Energies of orbitals; Filling of orbitals in atoms. Aufbau Principle, Pauli’s exclusion
Principle and Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity; Electronic configurations of atoms; Stability
of half-filled and completely filled orbitals.

Unit-2: CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES:
Need to classify elements - Genesis of periodic classification, Modern periodic law and present form
of the periodic table; Nomenclature of elements with atomic number greater than100;Electronic
configuration of elements and the periodic table; Electronic configuration and types of elements s,
p, d and f blocks; Trends in physical properties:(a) Atomic radius, (b) Ionic radius (c) Variation of
size in inner transition elements, (d) Ionization enthalpy, (e) Electron gain enthalpy, (f) Electro
negativity; Periodic trends in chemical properties: (a) Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation states, (b)
Anomalous properties of second period elements –diagonal relationship; Periodic trends and
chemical reactivity.

Unit-3: CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE: Kossel - Lewis approach
to chemical bonding, Octet rule, Lewis representation of simple molecules, formal charges,
limitations of octet rule; Ionic or electrovalent bond - Factors favourable for the formation of ionic
compounds- Crystal structure of sodium chloride, Lattice Enthalpy: General properties of ionic
compounds; Bond Parameters - bond length ,bond angle, and bond enthalpy, bond order, resonance-
Polarity of bonds dipole moment-Fajan rules; Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory;
Predicting the geometry of simple molecules; Valence bond theory-Orbital overlap concept-
Directional properties of bonds-overlapping of atomic orbitals- types of overlapping and nature of
covalent bonds-strength of sigma and pi bonds-Factors favouring the formation of covalent bonds;
Hybridisation- different types of hybridization involving s, p and d orbitals- shapes of simple covalent
molecules; Coordinate bond - definition with examples; Molecular orbital theory - Formation of
molecular orbitals, Linear combination of atomic orbitals(LCAO)-conditions for combination of
atomic orbitals-, Types of Molecular orbitals, Energy level diagrams for molecular orbitals -,
Electronic Configuration and Molecular Behaviour, Bonding in some homo nuclear diatomic
molecules- H2, He2, Li2, B2, C2, N2 and O2; Hydrogen bonding-cause of formation of hydrogen bond
- Types of hydrogen bonds-inter and intra molecular-General properties of hydrogen bonds.

Unit-4: STATES OF MATTER: GASES AND LIQUIDS: Intermolecular forces; Thermal
Energy; Intermolecular forces Vs Thermal interactions; The Gaseous State; The Gas Laws; Ideal
gas equation; Graham’s law of diffusion - Dalton’s Law of partial pressures; Kinetic molecular
theory of gases; Kinetic gas equation of an ideal gas (No derivation) deduction of gas laws from
Kinetic gas equation; Distribution of molecular speeds, Kinetic Energy, Behaviour of real gases -
Deviation from Ideal gas behaviour - Compressibility factor Vs Pressure diagrams of real gases;
Liquification of gases, Liquid state, Vapour Pressure, Surface tension, Viscosity (No mathematical
part).

Unit-5: STOICHIOMETRY: Significant figures, Laws of Chemical Combinations - Law of
Conservation of Mass, Law of Definite Proportions, Law of Multiple Proportions, Atomic and
molecular masses- mole concept and molar mass. Concept of equivalent weight; Percentage
composition of compounds and calculations of empirical and molecular formulae of compounds;
Stoichiometry and stoichiometric calculations- limiting reagent; Methods of Expressing
concentrations of solutions- mass percent, mole fraction, molarity, molality and normality; Redox
reactions-classical idea of redox reactions, oxidation and reduction reactions- redox reactions in
terms of electron transfer; Oxidation number concept; Types of Redox reactions- combination,
decomposition, displacement and disproportionation reactions; Balancing of redox reactions-
oxidation number method Half reaction (ion-electron)method; Redox reactions in titrimetry.

Unit-6: THERMODYNAMICS: Thermodynamic Terms; The system and the surroundings; Types
of systems and surroundings; The state of the system; The Internal Energy as a State Function.
(a)Work (b) Heat (c) The general case, the first law of Thermodynamics; Applications; Work;
Enthalpy, H- a useful new state function; Extensive and intensive properties; The relationship
between Cp and Cv; Measurement of∆U and ∆H: Calorimetry; Enthalpy change, ∆rH of reactions-
reaction Enthalpy (a) Standard enthalpy of reactions, (b) Enthalpy changes during transformations,
(c) Standard enthalpy of formation, (d) Thermochemical equations (e) Hess’s law of constant Heat
summation; Enthalpies for different types of reactions. (a) Standard enthalpy of combustion (∆cH0),
(b) Enthalpy of atomization (∆aH0), phase transition, sublimation and ionization, (c) Bond Enthalpy
(∆bondH0), (d) Enthalpy of solution (∆solH0) and dilution-lattice enthalpy; Spontaneity. (a) Is decrease
in enthalpy a criterion for spontaneity? (b) Entropy and spontaneity, the second law of
thermodynamics, (c) Gibbs Energy and spontaneity; Absolute entropy and the third law of
thermodynamics.

Unit-7: CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM AND ACIDS-BASES: Equilibrium in Physical process;
Equilibrium in chemical process - Dynamic Equilibrium; Law of chemical Equilibrium - Law of
mass action and Equilibrium constant; Homogeneous Equilibria, Equilibrium constant in gaseous
systems. Relationship between KP and Kc; Heterogeneous Equilibria; Applications of Equilibrium
constant; Relationship between Equilibrium constant K, reaction quotient Q and Gibbs energy G;
Factors affecting Equilibria.-Le-chatlier principle application to industrial synthesis of Ammonia
and Sulphur trioxide; Ionic Equilibrium in solutions; Acids, bases and salts- Arrhenius, Bronsted-
Lowry and Lewis concepts of acids and bases; Ionisation of Acids and Bases - Ionisation constant
of water and its ionic product- PH scale-ionisation constants of weak acids-ionisation of weak bases-
relation between Ka and Kb-Di and poly basic acids and di and poly acidic Bases-Factors affecting
acid strength- Common ion effect in the ionization of acids and bases- Hydrolysis of salts and pH of
their solutions, Buffer solutions - Solubility Equilibria of sparingly soluble salts. Solubility product
constant Common ion effect on solubility of Ionic salts.

Unit-8: HYDROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS: Position of hydrogen in the periodic table;
Dihydrogen-Occurrence and Isotopes; Preparation and properties of dihydrogen, uses of H2,
Hydrides: Ionic, covalent, and non-stoichiometric hydrides; Water: Physical properties; structure of
water, ice. Chemical properties of water; hard and soft water, Temporary and permanent hardness
of water; Hydrogen Peroxide: Preparation, properties, structure, storage and uses. Heavy Water;
Hydrogen as a fuel.

Unit-9: THE s-BLOCK ELEMENTS (ALKALI AND ALKALINE EARTH METALS):
Group 1 Elements :Alkali metals; Electronic configurations; Atomic and Ionic radii; Ionization
enthalpy; Hydration enthalpy; Physical properties; Chemical properties; Uses; General
characteristics of the compounds of the alkali metals: Oxides; Halides; Salts of oxo Acids;
Anomalous properties of Lithium: Differences and similarities with other alkali metals, Diagonal
relationship; similarities between Lithium and Magnesium; Some important compounds of Sodium:
Sodium Chloride, Sodium carbonate, Sodium Hydroxide, Sodium Bicarbonate, Biological
importance of Sodium and Potassium.

Group 2 Elements: Alkaline earth elements; Electronic configuration; Ionization enthalpy;
Hydration enthalpy; Physical properties, Chemical properties; Uses; General characteristics of
compounds of the Alkaline Earth Metals: Oxides, hydroxides, halides, salts of oxy acids
(Carbonates; Sulphates and Nitrates); Anomalous behavior of Beryllium; its diagonal relationship
with Aluminum; Some important compounds of calcium: Preparation and uses of Calcium
Hydroxide, Quick lime, Calcium Carbonate, Plaster of Paris; Cement, Biological importance of
Calcium and Magnesium.

Unit-10: p- BLOCK ELEMENTS GROUP 13 (BORON FAMILY): General introduction –
Electronic configuration, atomic radii, Ionization enthalpy, Electro negativity; Physical & Chemical
properties Aluminum reactivity towards acids & alkalies, Important trends and anomalous properties
of boron; Some important compounds of Boron- Borax, orthoboric acid, Diborane, Uses of boron,
aluminum, and their compounds.

Unit-11: p-BLOCK ELEMENTS - GROUP 14 (CARBON FAMILY): General introduction –
Electronic configuration, atomic radii, Ionization enthalpy, Electro negativity; Physical & Chemical
properties; Important trends and anomalous properties of carbon; Allotropes of carbon; Uses of
carbon; Some important compounds of Carbon and Silicon: Carbon Monoxide, Carbon dioxide,
Silica, Silicones, Silicates, Zeolites.

Unit-12: Environmental Chemistry: Definition of terms: Air, Water, Soil Pollutions,
Environmental Pollution, Atmospheric Pollution, Acid rain, Particulate pollutants, Stratospheric
pollution, Water pollution, Soil pollution, Strategies to control Environmental pollution, Green
Chemistry.

Unit-13: ORGANIC CHEMISTRY-SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES AND
HYDRO CARBONS: General introduction; Tetravalency of Carbon: shapes of organic
compounds; Structural representations of organic compounds; Classification of organic compounds;
Nomenclature of organic compounds; Isomerism; Fundamental concepts in organic reaction
mechanisms; Fission of covalent bond; Nucleophiles and electrophiles; Electron movements in
organic reactions; Electron displacement effects in covalent bonds: inductive effect, resonance,
resonance effect, electromeric effect, hyper conjugation; Types of Organic reactions; Methods of
purification of Organic compounds, Qualitative elemental analysis of Organic compounds,
Quantitative elemental analysis.
Hydrocarbons: Classification of Hydrocarbons; Alkanes - Nomenclature, isomerism (structural
and conformations of ethane only); Preparation of alkanes; Properties - Physical properties and
chemical Reactivity, Substitution reactions – Halogenation, Combustion, Controlled Oxidation,
Isomerisation, Aromatization, and reaction with steam, pyrolysis; Alkenes- Nomenclature, structure
of ethene, Isomerism (structural and geometrical) ; Methods of preparation; Properties-Physical and
chemical reactions: Addition of dihydrogen, halogen, water, Sulphuric acid, Hydrogen halides
(Mechanism- ionic and peroxide effect, Markovnikov’s, anti-Markovnikov’s or Kharasch effect).
Oxidation, Ozonolysis and Polymerization; Alkynes - Nomenclature and isomerism, structure of
acetylene. Methods of preparation of acetylene; Physical properties, Chemical reactions- acidic
character of alkyne, addition reactions-of hydrogen, Halogen, Hydrogen halides and water.
Polymerization; Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Nomenclature and isomerism, Structure of benzene,
Resonance and aromaticity; Preparation of benzene. Physical properties. Chemical properties:
Mechanism of electrophilic substitution. Electrophilic substitution reactions- Nitration,
Sulphonation, Halogenation, Friedel- Craft’s alkylation and acylation; Directive influence of
functional groups in mono substituted benzene, Carcinogenicity and toxicity.

Unit-14: SOLID STATE: General characteristics of solid state; Amorphous and crystalline solids;
Classification of crystalline solids based on different binding forces (molecular, ionic, metallic and
covalent solids); Probing the structure of solids: X-ray crystallography; Crystal lattices and unit
cells. Bravais lattices primitive and centered unit cells; Number of atoms in a unit cell (primitive,
body centered and face centered cubic unit cell);Close packed structures: Close packing in one
dimension, in two dimensions and in three dimensions- tetrahedral and octahedral voids- formula of
a compound and number of voids filled- locating tetrahedral and octahedral voids; Packing
efficiency in simple cubic, bcc and in hcp, ccp lattice; Calculations involving unit cell dimensions-
density of the unit cell; Imperfections in solids-types of point defects- stoichiometric and non-
stoichiometric defects; Electrical properties-conduction of electricity in metals, semiconductors and
insulators- band theory of metals; Magnetic properties

Unit-15: SOLUTIONS: Types of solutions; Expressing concentration of solutions-mass
percentage, volume percentage, mass by volume percentage, parts per million, mole fraction,
molarity and molality; Solubility: Solubility of a solid in a liquid, solubility of a gas in a liquid,
Henry’s law; Vapour pressure of liquid solutions: vapour pressure of liquid- liquid solutions.
Raoult’s law as a special case of Henry’s law -vapour pressure of solutions of solids in liquids; Ideal
and non-ideal solutions; Colligative properties and determination of molar mass-relative lowering
of vapour pressure-elevation of boiling point-depression of freezing point-osmosis and osmotic
pressure-reverse osmosis and water purification; Abnormal molar masses-van’t Hoff factor

Unit-16: ELECTROCHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL KINETICS:
Electrochemistry: Electrochemical cells; Galvanic cells: measurement of electrode potentials;
Nernst equation- equilibrium constant from Nernst equation- electrochemical cell and Gibbs energy
of the cell reaction; Conductance of electrolytic solutions-measurement of the conductivity of ionic
solutions-variation of conductivity and molar conductivity with concentration-strong electrolytes
and weak electrolytes-applications of Kohlrausch’s law; Electrolytic cells and electrolysis:
Faraday’s laws of electrolysis-products of electrolysis; Batteries: primary batteries and secondary
batteries, Fuel cells, Corrosion of metals-Hydrogen economy.
Chemical Kinetics: Rate of a chemical reaction; Factors influencing rate of a reaction: dependence
of rate on concentration- rate expression and rate constant-order of a reaction, molecularity of a
reaction; Integrated rate equations-zero order reactions-first order reactions- half- life of a reaction;
Pseudo first order reactions; Temperature dependence of the rate of a reaction - effect of catalyst;
Collision theory of chemical reaction rates

Unit-17: SURFACE CHEMISTRY: Adsorption: Distinction between adsorption and absorption-
mechanism of adsorption- types of adsorption- characteristics of physisorption- characteristics of
chemisorption- adsorption isotherms- adsorption from solution phase- applications of adsorption;
Catalysis: Catalysts, promoters and poisons-autocatalysis- homogeneous and heterogeneous
catalysis-adsorption theory of heterogeneous catalysis- important features of solid catalysts:
(a)activity (b)selectivity- shape-selective catalysis by zeolites- enzyme catalysis-characteristics and
mechanism- catalysts in industry
Colloids: Classification of colloids: Classification based on physical state of dispersed phase and
dispersion medium-classification based on nature of interaction between dispersed phase and
dispersion medium- classification based on type of particles of the dispersed phase- multimolecular,
macromolecular and associated colloids-cleansing action of soaps-preparation of colloids-
purification of colloidal solutions- properties of colloidal solutions: Colligative properties, Tyndal
effect, colour, Brownian movement-charge on colloidal particles, electrophoresis; coagulation-
precipitation methods-coagulation of lyophilic sols and protection of colloids- Emulsions; Colloids
around us-application of colloids.

Unit-18: GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF METALLURGY: Occurrence of metals; Concentration
of ores- levigation, magnetic separation, froth floatation leaching; Extraction of crude metal from
concentrated ore-conversion to oxide, reduction of oxide to the metal; Thermodynamic principles
of metallurgy-Ellingham diagram-limitations- applications-extraction of iron, copper and zinc from
their oxides; Electrochemical principles of metallurgy; Oxidation and reduction; Refining of crude
metal-distillation, liquation poling, electrolysis, zone refining and vapour phase refining; Uses of
aluminum, copper, zinc and iron

Unit-19: p-BLOCK ELEMENTS: Group-15 Elements: Occurrence-electronic configuration,
atomic and ionic radii, ionization enthalpy, electronegativity, physical and chemical properties;
Dinitrogen-preparation, properties and uses; Compounds of nitrogen-preparation, properties, and
uses of ammonia; Oxides of nitrogen; Preparation and properties of nitric acid;
Phosphorous-allotropic forms; Phosphine- preparation and properties; Phosphorous halides;
Oxoacids of phosphorous; Phosphorous halides & Oxo acids of phosphorous
Group-16 Elements: Occurrence-electronic configuration, atomic and ionic radii, ionization
enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, electronegativity, physical and chemical properties; Dioxygen-
preparation, properties and uses; Simple oxides; Ozone-preparation, properties, structure and uses;
Sulphur-allotropic forms; Sulphur dioxide-preparation, properties and uses; Oxoacids of sulphur;
Sulphuric acid-industrial process of manufacture, properties and uses.
Group-17 Elements: Occurrence, electronic configuration, atomic and ionic radii, ionization
enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, electronegativity, physical and chemical properties; Chlorine-
preparation, properties and uses; Hydrogen chloride- preparation, properties and uses; Oxoacids of
halogens; Interhalogen compounds-preparation, properties and uses.
Group-18 Elements: Occurrence, electronic configuration, ionization enthalpy, atomic radii,
electron gain enthalpy, physical and chemical properties(a) Xenon-fluorine compounds- XeF2, XeF4
and XeF6 -preparation, hydrolysis and formation of fluoro anions-structures of XeF2, XeF4 and XeF6
(b) Xenon-oxygen compounds XeO3and XeOF4 -their formation and structures-uses of noble gases.

Unit-20: d AND f BLOCK ELEMENTS & COORDINATION COMPOUNDS: d and f block
elements: Position in the periodic table; Electronic configuration of the d-block elements; General
properties of the transition elements (d-block) -physical properties, variation in atomic and ionic sizes
of transition series, ionization enthalpies, oxidation states, trends in the M²+/M and M³+/M²+ standard
electrode potentials, trends in stability of higher oxidation states, chemical reactivity and E θ values,
magnetic properties, formation of coloured ions, formation of complex compounds, catalytic
properties, formation of interstitial compounds, alloy formation; Some important compounds of
transition elements-oxides and oxo-anions of metals-uses of potassium dichromate and potassium
permanganate-structures of chromate, dichromate, manganate and permanganate ions; Inner transition
elements(f-block)-lanthanoids-electronic configuration-atomic and ionic sizes-oxidation states-
general characteristics; The Actinoids- electronic configurations, ionic sizes, oxidation states, general
characteristics and comparison with lanthanoids; Some applications of d and f block elements.
Coordination compounds: Werner’s theory of coordination compounds; Definitions of some terms
used in coordination compounds; Nomenclature of coordination compounds-IUPAC nomenclature;
Isomerism in coordination compounds-(a)Stereo isomerism- Geometrical and optical isomerism
(b)Structural isomerism- linkage, coordination, ionization and solvate isomerism
Bonding in coordination compounds. (a)Valence bond theory - magnetic properties of coordination
compounds-limitations of valence bond theory (b) Crystal field theory (i) Crystal field splitting in
octahedral and tetrahedral coordination entities (ii) Colour in coordination compounds- limitations
of crystal field theory; Bonding in metal carbonyls; Stability of coordination compounds; Importance
and applications of coordination compounds.

Unit-21: POLYMERS: Classification of Polymers -Classification based on source, structure, mode
of polymerization, molecular forces and growth polymerization; Types of polymerization reactions-
addition polymerization or chain growth polymerization- Ionic polymerization, free radical
mechanism-preparation of addition polymers- polythene, Teflon and poly acrylonitrile-
condensation polymerization or step growth polymerization-polyamides- preparation of Nylon 6,6
and nylon 6-polyesters- terylene- bakelite, melamine, formaldehyde polymer- copolymerization-
Rubber- natural rubber-vulcanisation of rubber-Synthetic rubbers- preparation of neoprene and
buna-N; Molecular mass of polymers-number average and weight average molecular masses- poly
dispersity index(PDI); Biodegradable polymers- poly β-Hydroxy butyrate-Co β-Hydroxy Velarate
(PHBV), Nylon 2-nylon 6; Polymers of commercial importance- poly propene, polystyrene, poly
vinyl chloride(PVC), urea- formaldehyde resin, glyptal, bakelite- their monomers, structures and
uses

Unit-22: BIOMOLECULES: Carbohydrates-Classification of carbohydrates-Monosaccharides:
preparation of glucose from sucrose and starch-Properties and structure of glucose-D,
L configurations and (+), (-) configurations of glucose-Structure of fructose; Disaccharides: Sucrose-
preparation, structure; Invert sugar- Structures of maltose and lactose- Polysaccharides: Structures of
starch, cellulose and glycogen- Importance of carbohydrates; Amino acids: Natural amino acids-
classification of amino acids-structures and D and L forms-Zwitterions; Proteins-Structures,
classification, fibrous and globular- primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures of proteins-
Denaturation of proteins; Enzymes: Enzymes, mechanism of enzyme action; Vitamins: Explanation-
names- classification of vitamins - sources of vitamins-deficiency diseases of different types of
vitamins; Nucleic acids: chemical composition of nucleic acids, structures of nucleic acids, DNA
fingerprinting biological functions of nucleic acids; Hormones: Definition, different types of
hormones, their production, biological activity, diseases due to their abnormal activities.

Unit-23: CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAYLIFE- Drugs and their classification: (a) Classification
of drugs on the basis of pharmacological effect (b) Classification of drugs on the basis of drug action
(c) Classification of drugs on the basis of chemical structure (d) Classification of drugs on the basis
of molecular targets; Drug-Target interaction-Enzymes as drug targets (a) Catalytic action of
enzymes (b) Drug-enzyme interaction Receptors as drug targets; Therapeutic action of different
classes of drugs: antacids, antihistamines, neurologically active drugs: tranquilizers, analgesics–
non- narcotic, narcotic analgesics, antimicrobials-antibiotics, antiseptics and disinfectants-
antifertility drugs; Chemicals in food- artificial sweetening agents, food preservatives, antioxidants
in food; Cleansing agents-soaps and synthetic detergents

Unit-24:HALO ALKANES AND HALO ARENES: Classification and nomenclature; Nature of C-
X bond; Methods of preparation: Alkylhalides and arylhalides-from alcohols, from hydrocarbons
(a) by free radical halogenation (b) by electrophilic substitution (c) by replacement of diazonium
group (Sandmeyer reaction) (d) by the addition of hydrogen halides and halogens to alkenes-by
halogen exchange reactions (Finkelstein reaction, Swarts reaction); Physical properties-melting and
boiling points, density and solubility; Chemical reactions: Reactions of haloalkanes (i) Nucleophilic
substitution reactions (a) SN² mechanism (b) SN¹mechanism (c) stereo chemical aspects of
nucleophilic substitution reactions-optical activity (ii) Elimination reactions (iii) Reaction with
metals-Reactions of haloarenes: (i) Nucleophilic substitution (ii) Electrophilic substitution and (iii)
Reaction with metals; Polyhalogen compounds: Uses and environmental effects of dichloro methane,
trichloromethane, triiodomethane, tetrachloro methane, freons and DDT

Unit-25: ORGANIC COMPOUNDS CONTAINING C, H AND O (ALCOHOLS,
PHENOLS, ETHERS, ALDEHYDES, KETONES AND CARBOXYLICACIDS):
Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers: Alcohols, phenols and ethers-classification; Nomenclature:
(a)Alcohols, (b) phenols and (c) ethers; Structures of hydroxy and ether functional groups;
Methods of preparation: Alcohols from alkenes and carbonyl compounds, from Grignard
reagents; Phenols from haloarenes, benzene sulphonic acid, diazonium salts, cumene; Physical
properties of alcohols and phenols; Chemical reactions of alcohols and phenols (i) Reactions
involving cleavage of O-H bond in alcohols-Acidity of alcohols and phenols, esterification (ii)
Reactions involving cleavage of C-O bond-reactions with HX, PX3, dehydration and oxidation
(iii) Reactions of phenols-electrophilic aromatic substitution, Kolbe’s reaction, Reimer - Tiemann
reaction, reaction with zinc dust, oxidation; Commercially important alcohols (methanol, ethanol)
Ethers-Methods of preparation: By dehydration of alcohols, Williamson synthesis-Physical
properties-Chemical reactions: Cleavage of C-O bond and electrophilic substitution of aromatic
ethers (anisole).
Aldehydes and Ketones: Nomenclature and structure of carbonyl group; Preparation of
aldehydes and ketones-(1) by oxidation of alcohols (2) by dehydrogenation of alcohols (3) from
hydrocarbons -Preparation of aldehydes (1) from acyl chlorides (2) from nitriles and esters (3)
from hydrocarbons-Preparation of ketones (1)from acyl chlorides (2) from nitriles (3) from
benzene or substituted benzenes; Physical properties of aldehydes and ketones; Chemical
reactions of aldehydes and ketones-nucleophilic addition, reduction, oxidation, reactions due to
α-Hydrogen and other reactions (Cannizzaro reaction, electrophilic substitution reaction);Uses of
aldehydes and ketones.
Carboxylic acids: Nomenclature and structure of carboxyl group; Methods of preparation of
carboxylic acids (1) from primary alcohols and aldehydes (2) from alkyl benzenes (3) from
nitriles and amides (4) from Grignard reagents (5) from acyl halides and anhydrides (6) from
esters; Physical properties; Chemical reactions: (i) Reactions involving cleavage of O-H bond-
acidity, reactions with metals and alkalies (ii) Reactions involving cleavage of C-OH bond-
formation of anhydride, reactions with PCl5, PCl3, SOCl2, esterification and reaction with
ammonia (iii) Reactions involving-COOH group-reduction, decarboxylation (iv) Substitution
reactions in the hydrocarbon part-halogenation and ring substitution; Uses of carboxylic acids.

Unit-26: ORGANIC COMPOUNDS CONTAINING NITROGEN:
Amines: Structure of amines; Classification; Nomenclature; Preparation of amines: reduction of
nitro compounds, ammonolysis of alkyl halides, reduction of nitriles, reduction of amides,
Gabriel phthalimide synthesis and Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction; Physical
properties; Chemical reactions: basic character of amines, alkylation, acylation, carbyl amine
reaction, reaction with nitrous acid, reaction with aryl sulphonyl chloride, electrophilic
substitution of aromatic amines (aniline)-bromination, nitration and sulphonation.
DIAZONIUM SALTS- Methods of preparation of diazonium salts (by diazotization); Physical
properties; Chemical reactions: Reactions involving displacement of Nitrogen, reactions
involving retention of di azo group –coupling reactions; Importance of diazonium salts in
synthesis of aromatic compounds Cyanides and Isocyanides:Structure and nomenclature of
cyanides and isocyanides; Preparation, physical properties and chemical reactions of cyanides
and isocyanide.
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